{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T11:42:47Z","timestamp":1792842167078,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004386","name":"Universiti Malaya research grant (UMRG PROGRAM)\u2014HTM","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RP033-14HTM"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RP033-14HTM"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004386","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003093","name":"High Impact Research Grant, Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["H-20001-00-E000059"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H-20001-00-E000059"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003093","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"UMSC CAREFUND"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oxidative stress in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells plays a key role in the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a leading cause of vision loss in the elderly. Thymoquinone, a bioactive antioxidant from Nigella sativa, has shown promise in reducing cellular oxidative stress. In AMD, prolonged exposure to oxidative stress may activate the NF-\u03ba\u03b2 signalling pathway in RPE cells, contributing to chronic inflammation, and its regulation by thymoquinone remains understudied. This study investigates the effects of thymoquinone in TNF\u03b1-induced RPE cells exposed to AGEs to mimic ageing conditions relevant for AMD. Gene and protein expression levels of NF-\u03ba\u03b2 pathway markers (P65, pP65 and I\u03ba\u03b2\u03b1) were measured using qPCR and Western blotting, and statistical analysis was performed using Student\u2019s t-test and one-way ANOVA. Thymoquinone pretreatment at 0.1 \u00b5M and 10 \u00b5M significantly reduced the expression of these markers in TNF\u03b1-stimulated RPE cells. Notably, AGE-exposed cells demonstrated a heightened response to thymoquinone compared to non-AGE-exposed controls. These findings suggest that thymoquinone modulates NF-\u03ba\u03b2 signalling and may serve as a potential adjuvant therapeutic agent for AMD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311473","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T10:25:16Z","timestamp":1764239116000},"page":"11473","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Thymoquinone Attenuates NF-\u03ba\u03b2 Signalling Activation in Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells Under AMD-Mimicking Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8103-1017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nur Musfirah","family":"Mahmud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UM Eye Research Centre, Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7568-7116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luminita","family":"Paraoan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9810-5334","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tengku Ain","family":"Kamalden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UM Eye Research Centre, Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e106","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(13)70145-1","article-title":"Global prevalence of age-related macular degeneration and disease burden projection for 2020 and 2040: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Wong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. 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