{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T18:37:23Z","timestamp":1790879843048,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Swim Across America foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rapid advancements in understanding how the immune system can eliminate tumors have quickly translated into breakthroughs in developing cancer therapeutics. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown great promise in several cancers; however, resistance can affect up to two-thirds of patients receiving ICIs. A significant limitation of the effectiveness of anti-PD-1 therapy centers around the insufficient levels of immune cells needed to recognize and kill cancer cells compared to the number of suppressive immune cells within the tumor microenvironment. Determining what is required to overcome the resistance to anti-PD-1 therapy in breast cancer remains a critical need. Our data demonstrate that IL-15 complexes injected intratumorally in combination with PD-1 blockade therapy induce regression of established luminal B mammary breast tumors. We show that IL-15 alone or in combination with anti-PD-1 drives changes in gene expression of pathways associated with TCR and co-stimulatory signaling, immune cell adhesion, and migration. Furthermore, we show that intratumoral injection of IL-15 complexes traffics to the tumor-draining lymph node, as evidenced by Light sheet microscopy, and colocalizes with the anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody. We also identify the immune signatures, localization, and distribution of immune cells in regressing and non-regressing breast tumors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311490","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T11:50:13Z","timestamp":1764244213000},"page":"11490","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["IL-15 Complexes Combined with PD-1 Blockade Affect Immune Cell Distribution, Localization, and Immune Signatures in Regressing Versus Non-Regressing Metastatic Breast Tumors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Josef W.","family":"Goldufsky","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anjelica F.","family":"Reyes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8008-3982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Allie A.","family":"Heller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"},{"name":"Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Malia E.","family":"Leifheit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maram N.","family":"Albalawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0470-2380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noah T.","family":"King","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Timothy M.","family":"Kuzel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9091-7653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey R.","family":"Schneider","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5839-0430","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda L.","family":"Marzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e007725","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2023-007725","article-title":"First-in-Human Phase I\/Ib Study of NIZ985, a Recombinant Heterodimer of IL-15 and IL-15R\u03b1, as a Single Agent and in Combination with Spartalizumab in Patients with Advanced and Metastatic Solid Tumors","volume":"11","author":"Leidner","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. 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