{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T14:24:16Z","timestamp":1790691856975,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite the groundbreaking impact of currently approved CAR T-cell therapies, substantial unmet clinical needs remain. This highlights the need for CAR T treatments that are easier to tune, combine, and program with logic rules, in oncology and autoimmunity. Modular CAR T cells use a two-part system: the CAR on the T cell binds an adaptor molecule (AM), and that adaptor binds the tumour-associated antigen (TAA). This design separates recognition of the target antigen and activation of the T cells, resulting in a cellular therapy concept with better control, flexibility, and safety compared to established direct-targeting CAR T-cell systems. The key advantage of the system is the adaptor molecule, often an antibody-based reagent, that targets the TAA. Adaptors can be swapped or combined without re-engineering the T cells, enabling straightforward multiplexing and logic-gated control. The CAR itself is designed to recognise the AM via a unique tag on the adaptor. Only when the CAR, AM, and antigen-positive target cell assemble correctly is T-cell effector function activated, leading to cancer cell lysis. This two-component system has several features that need to be considered when designing a modular CAR: First, the architecture of the CAR, i.e., how the binding domain and the backbone are designed, can influence tonic signalling and activation\/exhaustion parameters. Second, the affinity of CAR\u2013AM and AM\u2013TAA will mostly define the engagement kinetics of the system. Third, the valency of the AM has an impact on exhaustion and non-specific activation of CAR T cells. And lastly, the architecture of the AM, especially the size, defines the pharmacokinetics and, consequently, the dosing scheme of the AM. The research conducted on direct-targeting CAR T cells have generated in-depth knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of the technology in its current form, with remarkable clinical success in relapsed\/refractory disease and long-term survival in otherwise difficult-to-treat patient populations. On the other hand, CAR T-cell therapy poses the risk of severe adverse events and antigen loss coupled with antigen-negative relapse which remains the main reason for failed therapies. Addressing these issues in the traditional setting of one CAR targeting one antigen will always be difficult due to the heterogeneous nature of most oncologic diseases, but the flexibility to change target antigens and the modulation of CAR T response by dosing the AM in a modular CAR system might be pivotal to mitigate these hurdles of direct CAR T cells. Since the first conception of modular CARs in 2012, there have been more than 30 constructs published, and some of those have been translated into phase I\/II clinical trials with early signs of success, but whether these will progress into a late-stage clinical trial and gain regulatory approval remains to be seen.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262411898","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T12:20:57Z","timestamp":1765369257000},"page":"11898","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["The Current Landscape of Modular CAR T Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7039-5382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander Haide","family":"Joechner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosceptre (Aust) Pty Ltd., Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8584-8104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melanie","family":"Mach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosceptre (Aust) Pty Ltd., Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia"},{"name":"Sydney Medical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3358-3524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ziduo","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosceptre (Aust) Pty Ltd., Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia"},{"name":"St George and Sutherland Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1709866","article-title":"Tisagenlecleucel in Children and Young Adults with B-Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia","volume":"378","author":"Maude","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. 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