{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T05:20:36Z","timestamp":1765862436735,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]],"date-time":"2025-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765584000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001323","name":"Poliomyelitis Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PRF 16\/109"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRF 16\/109"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001323","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health","award":["D43 TW011236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D43 TW011236"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>HIV infection is accompanied by production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are regarded as critical in neuronal damage, leading to brain dysfunction. To develop diagnostic tools and therapeutic interventions, we need to measure CNS response to immune activation, hence the need to identify specific cytokine biomarkers that are associated with brain damage in HIV infection. This cross-sectional retrospective study applied Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) for brain volumetric measurements and high-throughput Luminex-based immunoassays to quantify plasma cytokine and chemokine concentrations. We then used generalized linear models and Partial Least Square Regression models to evaluate the association between brain volume and plasma cytokines in predominantly treatment-na\u00efve participants with HIV. After adjusting for clinical and demographic variables, we observed that higher MCP-1 (p = 0.013) and RANTES (p = 0.002) remained significantly associated with lower cortical white matter volume, whereas the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-9 (p = 0.025) and the growth factors PDGFBB (p = 0.012) and VEGF (p = 0.001) were associated with higher cortical white matter volume. Only IL-6 (p = 0.010) was significantly associated with lower subcortical grey matter volume. Higher concentrations of five pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 (p = 0.0001), IL-8 (p = 0.018), GCSF (p = 0.004), MCP-1 (p = 0.004), and RANTES (p = 0.015), were associated with lower total grey matter volume. Associations of pro-inflammatory cytokines with lower brain volume could imply a link to mechanisms of HIV-associated brain damage, which may lead to neurocognitive impairment. Therefore, the use of highly sensitive neuroimaging and high-throughput immunoassays in HIV-associated brain disorders has potential applications in clinical assessments and therapeutic monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262412000","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T09:36:39Z","timestamp":1765791399000},"page":"12000","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cortical White and Grey Matter Volume Differences Associated with Plasma Cytokine and Chemokine Levels in PLWH in Cape Town"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Vurayai","family":"Ruhanya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Virology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 8000, South Africa"},{"name":"Medical Microbiology Unit, Department of Laboratory Diagnostic and Investigative Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Avondale, Harare PO Box A178, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1318-5994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susan","family":"Engelbrecht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Virology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 8000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6698-8451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monray E.","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical and Molecular Metabolism Research (BioMMet), North-West University, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert H.","family":"Paul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Missouri-St Louis, 1 University Blvd, St. Louis, MO 63121, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Justen","family":"Manasa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Microbiology Unit, Department of Laboratory Diagnostic and Investigative Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Avondale, Harare PO Box A178, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8991-0948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Nyandoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Microbiology Unit, Department of Laboratory Diagnostic and Investigative Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Avondale, Harare PO Box A178, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4260-1181","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John A.","family":"Joska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MRC Unit of Anxiety & Stress Disorders, Department of Psychiatry & Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 8000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Soraya","family":"Seedat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MRC Unit of Anxiety & Stress Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town 8000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard Helmuth","family":"Glashoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Microbiology, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 8000, South Africa"},{"name":"National Health Laboratory Service (NHLS), Tygerberg Business Unit, Cape Town 8000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3283354a7b","article-title":"Cognitive dysfunction in HIV patients despite long-standing suppression of viremia","volume":"24","author":"Simioni","year":"2010","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-6405-11-13","article-title":"Viral and cellular factors underlying neuropathogenesis in HIV associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND)","volume":"11","author":"Rao","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2014.10.008","article-title":"Role of immune system in neuroinflammation and neurocognitive implications","volume":"45","author":"Hong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.3109\/13550280903131915","article-title":"Cliniconeuropathologic correlates of human immunodeficiency virus in the era of antiretroviral therapy","volume":"15","author":"Everall","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/2045-8118-10-23","article-title":"Brain pericytes increase the lipopolysaccharide-enhanced transcytosis of HIV-1 free virus across the in vitro blood-brain barrier: Evidence for cytokine-mediated pericyte-endothelial cell cross talk","volume":"10","author":"Dohgu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fluids Barriers CNS"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3729","DOI":"10.2174\/138161211798220918","article-title":"Cytokine signaling modulates blood-brain barrier function","volume":"17","author":"Pan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1159\/000096887","article-title":"Permeability of the blood-brain barrier to soluble cytokine receptors","volume":"2","author":"Banks","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neuroimmunomodulation"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612053381684","article-title":"Blood-brain barrier transport of cytokines: A mechanism for neuropathology","volume":"11","author":"Banks","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-014-0199-y","article-title":"Progressive increase in central nervous system immune activation in untreated primary HIV-1 infection","volume":"11","author":"Suh","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12728","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1118748109","article-title":"Peripheral inflammatory disease associated with centrally activated IL-1 system in humans and mice","volume":"109","author":"Lampa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1372346","article-title":"Role of neuroimaging in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders","volume":"34","author":"Masters","year":"2014","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-018-0682-9","article-title":"White matter damage, neuroinflammation, and neuronal integrity in HAND","volume":"25","author":"Alakkas","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.03.033","article-title":"Reliability and validity of MRI-based automated volumetry software relative to auto-assisted manual measurement of subcortical structures in HIV-infected patients from a multisite study","volume":"51","author":"Dewey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-011-0032-7","article-title":"Clinical factors related to brain structure in HIV: The CHARTER study","volume":"17","author":"Jernigan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-013-0185-7","article-title":"Increases in brain white matter abnormalities and subcortical gray matter are linked to CD4 recovery in HIV infection","volume":"19","author":"Ellis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurovirology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15223","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3252-09.2009","article-title":"One-year brain atrophy evident in healthy aging","volume":"29","author":"Fjell","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000112","article-title":"Neuroimaging of HIV associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND)","volume":"9","author":"Ances","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jis326","article-title":"Central nervous system viral invasion and inflammation during acute HIV infection","volume":"206","author":"Valcour","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-015-0268-6","article-title":"Novel Neuroimaging Methods to Understand How HIV Affects the Brain","volume":"12","author":"Thompson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15647","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0502548102","article-title":"Thinning of the cerebral cortex visualized in HIV\/AIDS reflects CD4+ T lymphocyte decline","volume":"102","author":"Thompson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e318249db17","article-title":"Independent effects of HIV, aging, and HAART on brain volumetric measures","volume":"59","author":"Ances","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"69","article-title":"Structural Brain Abnormalities in Successfully Treated HIV Infection: Associations with Disease and Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers","volume":"217","author":"Underwood","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-014-9567-8","article-title":"Plasma cytokine levels are related to brain volumes in HIV-infected individuals","volume":"9","author":"Gongvatana","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e982","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2016.238","article-title":"Cortical grey matter volume reduction in people with schizophrenia is associated with neuro-inflammation","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2478\/s13380-014-0203-0","article-title":"Interleukin-6 is linked to longitudinal rates of cortical thinning in aging","volume":"5","author":"McCarrey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transl. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a007120","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a007120","article-title":"HIV-1-related central nervous system disease: Current issues in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment","volume":"2","author":"Spudich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208408","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/208408","article-title":"Correlation between serum RANTES levels and the severity of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"2014","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19042","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112442200","article-title":"RANTES-mediated chemokine transcription in astrocytes involves activation and translocation of p90 ribosomal S6 protein kinase (RSK)","volume":"277","author":"Zhang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3117","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.6.3117","article-title":"Induction of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in HIV-1 Tat-stimulated astrocytes and elevation in AIDS dementia","volume":"95","author":"Conant","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3913","DOI":"10.2741\/2979","article-title":"Roles of MCP-1 in development of HIV-dementia","volume":"13","author":"Dhillon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jcbfm.9600055","article-title":"Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 regulation of blood-brain barrier permeability","volume":"25","author":"Stamatovic","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow. Metab."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1177\/135965350400900302","article-title":"Antiretroviral treatment alters relationship between MCP-1 and neurometabolites in HIV patients","volume":"9","author":"Chang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-19807-y","article-title":"Plasma MCP-1 and cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease and mild cognitive impairment: A two-year tollow-up study","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"474","article-title":"The role of inflammatory cytokines in cognition and other non-motor symptoms of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"51","author":"Menza","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-025-01022-9","article-title":"Subcortical volumes, frontal cortical thickness, and pro-inflammatory cytokines in schizophrenia versus methamphetamine-induced psychosis","volume":"19","author":"Blake","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2017.04.022","article-title":"Circulating inflammatory biomarkers in relation to brain structural measurements in a non-demented elderly population","volume":"65","author":"Gu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000807","article-title":"Chronic inflammation mediates brain injury in HIV infection: Relevance for cure strategies","volume":"33","author":"McArthur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105940","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2022.105940","article-title":"The complex role of inflammation and gliotransmitters in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"176","author":"Gopinath","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000521","article-title":"Circulating inflammatory biomarkers are related to cerebrovascular disease in older adults","volume":"6","author":"Gu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-171153","article-title":"Risk Factors Associated with Cortical Thickness and White Matter Hyperintensities in Dementia Free Okinawan Elderly","volume":"63","author":"Silbert","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6877-0_2","article-title":"IL-9: Function, Sources, and Detection","volume":"1585","author":"Sanchez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10242","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.18.10242","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor: Direct neuroprotective effect in in vitro ischemia","volume":"97","author":"Jin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2003.016287","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is increased in serum, but not in cerebrospinal fluid in HIV associated CNS diseases","volume":"75","author":"Sporer","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.00-0495fje","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor rescues hippocampal neurons from glutamate-induced toxicity: Signal transduction cascades","volume":"15","author":"Matsuzaki","year":"2001","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6377","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-015-9536-0","article-title":"Mechanisms of platelet-derived growth factor-BB in restoring HIV Tat-cocaine-mediated impairment of neuronal differentiation","volume":"53","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2010.11.010","article-title":"Neuroprotective and neurodegenerative effects of the chronic expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic circuit of adult mice","volume":"227","author":"Chertoff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/0896-6273(94)90159-7","article-title":"Tumor necrosis factors protect neurons against metabolic-excitotoxicity insults and promote maintenance of calcium homeostasis","volume":"12","author":"Cheng","year":"1994","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32869","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M311766200","article-title":"Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) -mediated neuroprotection against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity is enhanced by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation. Essential role of a TNF receptor 2-mediated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent NF-kappa B pathway","volume":"279","author":"Marchetti","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434010","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/434010","article-title":"Cytokine Levels in the Serum of Healthy Subjects","volume":"2013","author":"Kleiner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2021.0047","article-title":"Plasma Cytokine Biomarker Cutoff Values for HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Impairment in Adults","volume":"34","author":"Ruhanya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2013.09.005","article-title":"Relationship of plasma cytokines and clinical biomarkers to memory performance in HIV","volume":"265","author":"Correia","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de la Monte, S.M., Tong, M., and Hapel, A.J. (2023). Concordant and Discordant Cerebrospinal Fluid and Plasma Cytokine and Chemokine Responses in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Early-Stage Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11092394"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2020.0251","article-title":"Plasma Cytokine Levels As Predictors of Global and Domain-Specific Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Associated Neurocognitive Impairment in Treatment-Naive Individuals","volume":"41","author":"Ruhanya","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Interf. Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2020.0203","article-title":"Impact of plasma IP-10\/CXCL10 and RANTES\/CCL5 levels on neurocognitive function in HIV treatment na\u00efve patients","volume":"37","author":"Ruhanya","year":"2021","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-016-0503-y","article-title":"Neuroimaging abnormalities in clade C HIV are independent of Tat genetic diversity","volume":"23","author":"Paul","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"1229","article-title":"White matter fiber bundle lengths are shorter in cART naive HIV: An analysis of quantitative diffusion tractography in South Africa","volume":"12","author":"Joska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/24\/12000\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T05:17:03Z","timestamp":1765862223000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/24\/12000"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262412000"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262412000","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1422-0067"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]}}}