{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T03:33:15Z","timestamp":1790393595883,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["075-15-2024-531"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2024-531"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Managing bacterial infections and the spread of microbial resistance is one of the most critical and complex tasks of modern healthcare infrastructures. Antiseptics and disinfectants such as biocides play a significant role in controlling microbial resistance by reducing the microbial load on surfaces, skin, and environments, thereby limiting the opportunity for pathogens to proliferate and develop resistance. Herein, we tested the different interactions of quaternary ammonium compound (QAC)-based biocide compositions in pursuit of a better antimicrobial performance. An extensive microbiological analysis was conducted for 12 selected compositions of various combinations of mono-QACs, bis-QACs, and alcohols on 17 strains of bacteria of the ESKAPEE group and fungi, including 11 clinical highly resistant varieties, highlighting synergistic or additive dynamics. The evaluation showed noticeable improvements in activity, with up to 16-fold MBC and 32-fold MBEC reductions for alcohol-based compositions of lead QAC. Moreover, synergistic interactions were detected and confirmed via an optimized checkerboard assay for pyridinium QAC combinations against planktonic Gram-positive S. aureus with a fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) and fractional bactericidal concentration index (FBCI) of 0.39\u20130.5 and Gram-negative A. baumannii biofilms. The studied biocides demonstrated the long-term preservation of antimicrobial efficiency without resistance development during a 40-day period and do not induce QAC-associated cross-resistance for four commercially available antibiotics with similar mechanisms of action.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262412098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T12:47:26Z","timestamp":1765889246000},"page":"12098","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["In Pursuit of a Better Biocide Composition: Synergistic and Additive Effects of QAC-Based Formulations Against Planktonic and Biofilm Cultures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3626-7319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikita A.","family":"Frolov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3608-6286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mary A.","family":"Seferyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3478-6534","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena V.","family":"Detusheva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, 119991 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, City District Serpukhov, Moscow Region, 142279 Obolensk, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Son","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, City District Serpukhov, Moscow Region, 142279 Obolensk, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ilya G.","family":"Kolmakov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, 119991 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 1-3, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8675-4943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anatoly N.","family":"Vereshchagin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 47, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S122","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1145","article-title":"Antibacterial resistance worldwide: Causes, challenges and responses","volume":"10","author":"Levy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glmedi.2024.100081","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: Impacts, challenges, and future prospects","volume":"2","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Med. Surg. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karnwal, A., Jassim, A.Y., Mohammed, A.A., Al-Tawaha, A.R.M.S., Selvaraj, M., and Malik, T. (2025). Addressing the global challenge of bacterial drug resistance: Insights, strategies, and future directions. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1517772"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24655","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.24655","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance: The challenges and some emerging strategies for tackling a global menace","volume":"36","author":"Ugwu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coque, T.M., Cant\u00f3n, R., P\u00e9rez-Cobas, A.E., Fern\u00e1ndez-de-Bobadilla, M.D., and Baquero, F. (2023). Antimicrobial Resistance in the Global Health Network: Known Unknowns and Challenges for Efficient Responses in the 21st Century. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11041050"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, and European Medicines Agency (2009). The Bacterial Challenge: Time to React: A Call to Narrow the Gap Between Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in the EU and the Development of New Antibacterial Agents."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1111\/mpp.12436","article-title":"Bacterial disease management: Challenges, experience, innovation and future prospects: Challenges in Bacterial Molecular Plant Pathology","volume":"17","author":"Sundin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.12.1.147","article-title":"Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance","volume":"12","author":"McDonnell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-023-00958-3","article-title":"Disinfectants and antiseptics: Mechanisms of action and resistance","volume":"22","author":"Maillard","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, S., Reagan, K., and Saunders, N. (2023). Antiseptics, Disinfectants, and Sterilization. Advanced Monitoring and Procedures for Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care, Wiley Online Library.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119581154.ch64"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-021-00938-3","article-title":"Disinfectants In Interventional Practices","volume":"25","author":"Aranke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Pain Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2017.301","article-title":"Alcohols as Surface Disinfectants in Healthcare Settings","volume":"39","author":"Boyce","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2012.12.010","article-title":"Efficacy of alcohols and alcohol-based hand disinfectants against human enterovirus 71","volume":"83","author":"Chang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alajlan, A.A., Mukhtar, L.E., Almussallam, A.S., Alnuqaydan, A.M., Albakiri, N.S., Almutari, T.F., Bin Shehail, K.M., Aldawsari, F.S., and Alajel, S.M. (2022). Assessment of disinfectant efficacy in reducing microbial growth. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0269850"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kampf, G. (2024). Antiseptic Stewardship for Alcohol-Based Hand Rubs. Antiseptic Stewardship: Biocide Resistance and Clinical Implications, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-66074-0"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-022-01134-7","article-title":"Ethanol is indispensable for virucidal hand antisepsis: Memorandum from the alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) Task Force, WHO Collaborating Centre on Patient Safety, and the Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (KRINKO), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany","volume":"11","author":"Kramer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vereshchagin, A.N., Frolov, N.A., Egorova, K.S., Seitkalieva, M.M., and Ananikov, V.P. (2021). Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) and ionic liquids (ILs) as biocides: From simple antiseptics to tunable antimicrobials. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22136793"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1080\/17460913.2025.2480946","article-title":"Not all disinfectants are created equal: The importance of mechanistic understanding to drive research forward","volume":"20","author":"Bezold","year":"2025","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.134632","article-title":"A new class of quaternary ammonium compounds as potent and environmental friendly disinfectants","volume":"379","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, I.A., and Joshi, L.T. (2021). Biocide Use in the Antimicrobial Era: A Review. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26082276"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frolov, N., Detusheva, E., Fursova, N., Ostashevskaya, I., and Vereshchagin, A. (2022). Microbiological Evaluation of Novel Bis-Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: Clinical Strains, Biofilms, and Resistance Study. Pharmaceuticals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph15050514"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01553.x","article-title":"Synergism within polyhexamethylene biguanide biocide formulations","volume":"69","author":"Gilbert","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, D., Liu, Y., Jiang, F., Ji, F., Wang, H., and Han, X. (2019). Synergistic Antibacterial Activity of Designed Trp-Containing Antibacterial Peptides in Combination With Antibiotics Against Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02719"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioflm.2022.100068","article-title":"Synergistic effect of antibiotic combinations on Staphylococcus aureus biofilms and their persister cell populations","volume":"4","author":"Kamble","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biofilm"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-022-03197-x","article-title":"Rapid-killing efficacy substantiates the antiseptic property of the synergistic combination of carvacrol and nerol against nosocomial pathogens","volume":"204","author":"Kasthuri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taheri-Araghi, S. (2024). Synergistic action of antimicrobial peptides and antibiotics: Current understanding and future directions. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1390765"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, L., Cao, M., Chen, X., Bai, Y., Wang, W., Wei, X., Shi, Y., Zhang, Y., Ma, T., and Zhu, Z. (2024). In Vitro Antimicrobial Synergistic Activity and the Mechanism of the Combination of Naringenin and Amikacin Against Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12091871"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Lehmann, R.H. (2001). Synergism in Disinfectant Formulation, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-6865(95)00015-2","article-title":"Evaluation of synergistic effects of three bactericidal agents associated in an antiseptic formulation","volume":"70","author":"Chevalier","year":"1995","journal-title":"Pharm. Acta Helv."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"237581","article-title":"The Influence of Interfering Substances on the Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Quaternary Ammonium Compounds","volume":"2013","author":"Lemos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leclercq, L., and Nardello-Rataj, V. (2022). A New Synergistic Strategy for Virus and Bacteria Eradication: Towards Universal Disinfectants. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14122791"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinorgbio.2023.112190","article-title":"Synergistic antibacterial and biofilm eradication activity of quaternary-ammonium compound with copper ion","volume":"243","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedreira, A., Fernandes, S., Sim\u00f5es, M., Garc\u00eda, M.R., and V\u00e1zquez, J.A. (2024). Synergistic Bactericidal Effects of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds with Essential Oil Constituents. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13121831"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, D., Gupta, R., Mehta, R., Prabhakaran, P.N., Kumari, D., Bhui, K., and Murali, D. (2025). Revisiting the Synergistic In Vitro Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Potential of Chlorhexidine Gluconate and Cetrimide in Combination as an Antiseptic and Disinfectant Agent. Microbiol. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/microbiolres16010016"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2025.137891","article-title":"Unveiling the multifaceted mechanisms of action in nonionic and cationic biocide combinations against Gram-negative bacteria","volume":"696","author":"Liao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noel Daniel, J., Keevil, C.W., and Wilks Sandra, A. (2021). Synergism versus Additivity: Defining the Interactions between Common Disinfectants. mBio, 12.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02281-21"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3868","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.4c00433","article-title":"Highly Effective Biocides against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Reveal New Mechanistic Insights Across Gram-Negative Bacteria","volume":"10","author":"Sanchez","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.2c00469","article-title":"From Antibacterial to Antibiofilm Targeting: An Emerging Paradigm Shift in the Development of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs)","volume":"9","author":"Saverina","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1021\/jm00377a014","article-title":"Bispyridinamines: A new class of topical antimicrobial agents as inhibitors of dental plaque","volume":"27","author":"Bailey","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frolov, N.A., Seferyan, M.A., Detusheva, E.V., Son, E., Kolmakov, I.G., Kartseva, A.S., Firstova, V.V., Vereshchagin, A.N., and Elinson, M.N. (2024). Development of Naphthalene-Derivative Bis-QACs as Potent Antimicrobials: Unraveling Structure\u2013Activity Relationship and Microbiological Properties. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4919346"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7187","DOI":"10.1021\/jo9012157","article-title":"(2-Pyridyl)acetone-Promoted Cu-Catalyzed O-Arylation of Phenols with Aryl Iodides, Bromides, and Chlorides","volume":"74","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Org. Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kampf, G. (2024). Propan-2-ol. Antiseptic Stewardship: Biocide Resistance and Clinical Implications, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-66074-0"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kampf, G. (2024). Propan-1-ol. Antiseptic Stewardship: Biocide Resistance and Clinical Implications, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-66074-0_1"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00760-20","DOI":"10.1128\/msphere.00760-20","article-title":"Comparative Evaluations of the Pathogenesis of Candida auris Phenotypes and Candida albicans Using Clinically Relevant Murine Models of Infections","volume":"5","author":"Vila","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2599136","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/2599136","article-title":"Similarities and Differences among Species Closely Related to Candida albicans: C. tropicalis, C. dubliniensis, and C. auris","volume":"2022","author":"Satala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Rutala, W.A., and Weber, D.J. (2019). Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities, 2008."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-015-0065-y","article-title":"Ethanol and Isopropyl Alcohol Exposure Increases Biofilm Formation in Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis","volume":"4","author":"Luther","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thi, M.T., Wibowo, D., and Rehm, B.H.A. (2020). Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21228671"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cplett.2016.12.067","article-title":"Effect of ethanol on structures and interactions among globular proteins","volume":"670","author":"Kundu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-2952(95)02230-9","article-title":"A checkerboard method to evaluate interactions between drugs","volume":"51","author":"Villahermosa","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mex.2021.101543","article-title":"New and simplified method for drug combination studies by checkerboard assay","volume":"8","author":"Bellio","year":"2021","journal-title":"MethodsX"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2394","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkae233","article-title":"Beyond the FIC index: The extended information from fractional inhibitory concentrations (FICs)","volume":"79","author":"Andersson","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00999-09","article-title":"Defining Fractional Inhibitory Concentration Index Cutoffs for Additive Interactions Based on Self-Drug Additive Combinations, Monte Carlo Simulation Analysis, and In Vitro-In Vivo Correlation Data for Antifungal Drug Combinations against Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"54","author":"Meletiadis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verderosa, A.D., Totsika, M., and Fairfull-Smith, K.E. (2019). Bacterial Biofilm Eradication Agents: A Current Review. Front Chem, 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2019.00824"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8896","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-88244-1","article-title":"Biofilm eradication and antifungal mechanism of action against Candida albicans of cationic dicephalic surfactants with a labile linker","volume":"11","author":"Paluch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22684","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.0c02294","article-title":"Mechanisms and Control Measures of Mature Biofilm Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents in the Clinical Context","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1039\/D4RA07975B","article-title":"A dual antibacterial action of soft quaternary ammonium compounds: Bacteriostatic effects, membrane integrity, and reduced in vitro and in vivo toxicity","volume":"15","author":"Krce","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1039\/D3VA00063J","article-title":"Quaternary ammonia compounds in disinfectant products: Evaluating the potential for promoting antibiotic resistance and disrupting wastewater treatment plant performance","volume":"3","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knauf Gregory, A., Cunningham Ashley, L., Kazi Misha, I., Riddington Ian, M., Crofts Alexander, A., Cattoir, V., Trent, M.S., and Davies Bryan, W. (2018). Exploring the Antimicrobial Action of Quaternary Amines against Acinetobacter baumannii. mBio, 9.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02394-17"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1556\/1886.2024.00035","article-title":"Methods for screening and evaluation of antimicrobial activity: A review of protocols, advantages, and limitations","volume":"14","author":"Hossain","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiac.2015.02.001","article-title":"Applications of the pharmacokinetic\/pharmacodynamic (PK\/PD) analysis of antimicrobial agents","volume":"21","author":"Isla","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2025.117673","article-title":"Exploring the correlation of linker structure and antimicrobial activities of pyridinium-based cationic biocides: Aromatic versus aliphatic architectures","volume":"292","author":"Frolov","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.0c00437","article-title":"Increased Use of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic and Beyond: Consideration of Environmental Implications","volume":"7","author":"Hora","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20148","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c04413","article-title":"Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) in Wastewater Influent and Effluent Throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"57","author":"Mahony","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-023-01241-z","article-title":"Quaternary ammonium disinfectants and antiseptics: Tolerance, resistance and potential impact on antibiotic resistance","volume":"12","author":"Boyce","year":"2023","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/s44259-024-00026-7","article-title":"Co-selection for antibiotic resistance by environmental contaminants","volume":"2","author":"Murray","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.178020","article-title":"Challenges of quaternary ammonium antimicrobial agents: Mechanisms, resistance, persistence and impacts on the microecology","volume":"958","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bland, R., Waite-Cusic, J., Weisberg, A.J., Riutta, E.R., Chang, J.H., and Kovacevic, J. (2022). Adaptation to a Commercial Quaternary Ammonium Compound Sanitizer Leads to Cross-Resistance to Select Antibiotics in Listeria monocytogenes Isolated From Fresh Produce Environments. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.782920"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1185\/03007995.2015.1018989","article-title":"Colistin, mechanisms and prevalence of resistance","volume":"31","author":"Bialvaei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2019.10.005","article-title":"Vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: A review of case updating and clinical features","volume":"21","author":"Cong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3771","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-020-10525-y","article-title":"Mechanisms of bactericidal action and resistance of polymyxins for Gram-positive bacteria","volume":"104","author":"Yin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s12038-021-00209-8","article-title":"Polymyxins, the last-resort antibiotics: Mode of action, resistance emergence, and potential solutions","volume":"46","author":"Mohapatra","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mencom.2022.09.012","article-title":"Novel naphthalene-based bis-pyridinium compounds with pronounced antibacterial activity","volume":"32","author":"Frolov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mendeleev Commun."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.1998.00797.x","article-title":"Initiation of biofilm formation in Pseudomonas fluorescens WCS365 proceeds via multiple, convergent signalling pathways: A genetic analysis","volume":"28","author":"Kolter","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2007.apm_630.x","article-title":"Quantification of biofilm in microtiter plates: Overview of testing conditions and practical recommendations for assessment of biofilm production by Staphylococci","volume":"115","author":"Hola","year":"2007","journal-title":"Apmis"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Weinstein, M.P., Lewis, J.S., Bobenchik, A.M., Campeau, S., Cullen, S.K., Galas, M.F., Gold, H., Humphries, R.M., Kirn, T.J., and Limbago, B. (2020). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. [30th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01201-18","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01201-18","article-title":"Widely used benzalkonium chloride disinfectants can promote antibiotic resistance","volume":"84","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.42.1.73-78.2004","article-title":"Adaptive resistance to biocides in Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli O157 and cross-resistance to antimicrobial agents","volume":"42","author":"Braoudaki","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rensch, U., Klein, G., and Kehrenberg, C. (2013). Analysis of triclosan-selected Salmonella enterica mutants of eight serovars revealed increased aminoglycoside susceptibility and reduced growth rates. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0078310"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/24\/12098\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T05:28:20Z","timestamp":1766035700000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/24\/12098"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262412098"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262412098","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]}}}