{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,25]],"date-time":"2026-10-25T10:33:54Z","timestamp":1792924434286,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766534400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R21 CA260147"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21 CA260147"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R03AG075597"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R03AG075597"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"ORED"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000957","name":"Alzheimer\u2019s Association Award","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["AARG-NTF-22-972518"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AARG-NTF-22-972518"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000957","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000005","name":"Department of Defense","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HT9425-23-1-0043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HT9425-23-1-0043"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000005","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) is considered one of the leading causes of death in the United States, and there is no effective cure for it. Understanding the neuropathological mechanisms underlying AD is essential for identifying early, reliable biomarkers and developing effective therapies. In this paper, we report on a comprehensive multimodal study of AD pathology using the 5xFAD mouse model. We employed light-scattering techniques, Partial Wave Spectroscopy (PWS) and Inverse Participation Ratio (IPR), to detect nanoscale structural alterations in brain tissues, nuclear components, and mitochondria. To support the light-scattering experiments, behavior, and histopathological studies were conducted. These analyses revealed significant increases in structural heterogeneity and mass density fluctuations in the brains of 5xFAD mice compared with Non-transgenic controls. Behavioral assessment performed using the Novel Object Recognition test demonstrated memory impairment in 5xFAD mice, reflected by a reduced recognition index. Histopathological analysis further revealed increased amyloid beta plaques and microglia activation in the hippocampus and cortex of 5xFAD mice compared with Non-transgenic controls. An increase in structural disorder within brain tissues can be attributed to higher mass density fluctuations, likely arising from macromolecular rearrangement driven by amyloid beta aggregation and neuroinflammatory responses as the disease progresses. Our findings suggest that PWS and IPR-derived metrics provide sensitive biophysical indicators of early cellular and subcellular disruption, offering potential as quantitative biomarkers for the detection of AD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27010198","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T09:58:34Z","timestamp":1766570314000},"page":"198","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Comprehensive Multimodal and Multiscale Analysis of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in 5xFAD Mice: Optical Spectroscopies, TEM, Neuropathological, and Behavioral Investigations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-8507-8668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dhruvil","family":"Solanki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9791-8898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ishmael","family":"Apachigawo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sazzad","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1572-0099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Santanu","family":"Maity","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0330-4744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fatemah","family":"Alharthi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samia","family":"Nasim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Hamilton Eye Institute, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fnu","family":"Sweety","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1474-3335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Alizadeh Poshtiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianfeng","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4679-294X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Moshahid","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4363-2326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Prabhakar","family":"Pradhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(03)00067-5","article-title":"The Metallobiology of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"26","author":"Bush","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Alzheimer\u2019s Association (2025). 2025 Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Facts and Figures. Alzheimer\u2019s Dement., 21, e70235."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2010-1221","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and the \u03b2-Amyloid Peptide","volume":"19","author":"Murphy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1038\/341226a0","article-title":"Amyloid \u03b2-Protein Deposition in Tissues Other than Brain in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"341","author":"Joachim","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15056","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2015.56","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"1","author":"Masters","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2025, December 05). Dementia. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/dementia."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5298","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000002628","article-title":"Trends, Inequalities, and Cross-Location Similarities in Global Dementia Burden and Attributable Risk Factors across 204 Countries and Territories: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"111","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"a006189","article-title":"Neuropathological Alterations in Alzheimer Disease","volume":"1","author":"Frosch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.58.12.1791","article-title":"Phases of A Beta-Deposition in the Human Brain and Its Relevance for the Development of AD","volume":"58","author":"Thal","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500351","DOI":"10.1002\/smsc.202500351","article-title":"Nanoscale Analysis beyond Imaging by Atomic Force Microscopy: Molecular Perspectives on Oncology and Neurodegeneration","volume":"5","author":"Marcuello","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4899","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-025-03081-2","article-title":"Advance and Prospect of Positron Emission Tomography in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Research","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026012","DOI":"10.1088\/1478-3975\/8\/2\/026012","article-title":"Quantification of Nanoscale Density Fluctuations by Electron Microscopy: Probing Cellular Alterations in Early Carcinogenesis","volume":"8","author":"Pradhan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-03-00994.2003","article-title":"Dynamics of Gray Matter Loss in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"23","author":"Thompson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribari\u010d, S. (2023). Detecting Early Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease with Brain Synaptic Structural and Functional Evaluation. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11020355"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.3390\/biophysica3040039","article-title":"Fractal Dimension Analyses to Detect Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s Diseases Using Their Thin Brain Tissue Samples via Transmission Optical Microscopy","volume":"3","author":"Apachigawo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biophysica"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410170420","article-title":"Early-Onset Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: An Analysis of CT Findings","volume":"17","author":"Drayer","year":"1985","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2871","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.42.002871","article-title":"Microscopic Origin of Light Scattering in Tissue","volume":"42","author":"Popp","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boustany, N.N., and Thakor, N.V. (2003). Light Scatter Spectroscopy and Imaging of Cellular and Subcellular Events. Biomedical Photonics: Handbook, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203008997.ch16"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3651","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.38.003651","article-title":"Light Scattering from Cells: Finite-Difference Time-Domain Simulations and Goniometric Measurements","volume":"38","author":"Drezek","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adhikari, P., Alharthi, F., and Pradhan, P. (2019, January 15\u201319). Partial Wave Spectroscopy Detection of Cancer Stages Using Tissue Microarrays (TMA) Samples. Proceedings of the Frontiers in Optics + Laser Science APS\/DLS (2019), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1364\/FIO.2019.JW4A.89"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036005","DOI":"10.1088\/1478-3975\/ab6abb","article-title":"Studying Nanoscale Structural Alterations in Cancer Cells to Evaluate Ovarian Cancer Drug Treatment, Using Transmission Electron Microscopy Imaging","volume":"17","author":"Adhikari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alharthi, F., Apachigawo, I., Solanki, D., Khan, S., Singh, H., Khan, M.M., and Pradhan, P. (2024). Dual Photonics Probing of Nano- to Submicron-Scale Structural Alterations in Human Brain Tissues\/Cells and Chromatin\/DNA with the Progression of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252212211"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1039\/C5LC01445J","article-title":"Cell Refractive Index for Cell Biology and Disease Diagnosis: Past, Present and Future","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.1357","article-title":"Correlating Colorectal Cancer Risk with Field Carcinogenesis Progression Using Partial Wave Spectroscopic Microscopy","volume":"7","author":"Gladstein","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2010.11.023","article-title":"Light-Scattering Technologies for Field Carcinogenesis Detection: A Modality for Endoscopic Prescreening","volume":"140","author":"Backman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0804723105","article-title":"Optical Methodology for Detecting Histologically Unapparent Nanoscale Consequences of Genetic Alterations in Biological Cells","volume":"105","author":"Subramanian","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-016-1662-x","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Experimental Models and Reality","volume":"133","author":"Drummond","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2024, December 02). New Genetically Modified Mouse Model Mimics Multiple Aspects of Human Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, Available online: https:\/\/www.nia.nih.gov\/news\/new-genetically-modified-mouse-model-mimics-multiple-aspects-human-alzheimers-disease."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24709","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA Mutations Increase in Early Stage Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Are Inconsistent with Oxidative Damage","volume":"80","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.5858\/2002-126-0271-MDRMDI","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA\u2013Related Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"126","author":"Swerdlow","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Pathol. Lab Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-023-03736-7","article-title":"Neuritic Plaques\u2014Gateways to Understanding Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"61","author":"Tsering","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2023.08.005","article-title":"Early Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Pathology in Human Cortex Involves Transient Cell States","volume":"186","author":"Gazestani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2021.101307","article-title":"Re-Emphasizing Early Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Pathology Starting in Select Entorhinal Neurons, with a Special Focus on Mitophagy","volume":"67","author":"Aman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-02109-8","article-title":"DNA Double-Strand Break Accumulation in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Evidence from Experimental Models and Postmortem Human Brains","volume":"58","author":"Thadathil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-230316","article-title":"Landscape of Double-Stranded DNA Breaks in Postmortem Brains from Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Non-Demented Individuals","volume":"94","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2023.08.038","article-title":"Neuronal DNA Double-Strand Breaks Lead to Genome Structural Variations and 3D Genome Disruption in Neurodegeneration","volume":"186","author":"Dileep","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-014-1458-9","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number in Peripheral Blood Cells Declines with Age and Is Associated with General Health among Elderly","volume":"133","author":"Thinggaard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.14021","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number in Human Disease: The More the Better?","volume":"595","author":"Filograna","year":"2021","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cerantonio, A., Citrigno, L., Greco, B.M., De Benedittis, S., Passarino, G., Maletta, R., Qualtieri, A., Montesanto, A., Spadafora, P., and Cavalcanti, F. (2024). The Role of Mitochondrial Copy Number in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Present Insights and Future Directions. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25116062"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mito.2020.06.004","article-title":"Thinking Outside the Nucleus: Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number in Health and Disease","volume":"53","author":"Castellani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mitochondrion"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2025.102713","article-title":"Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"107","author":"Kanaan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3489","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.14585","article-title":"Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Role in Pathogenesis and Novel Therapeutic Opportunities","volume":"176","author":"Swerdlow","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12812","article-title":"The Role of Mitochondrial Genome Abundance in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"19","author":"Harerimana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1930","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000207157","article-title":"Association of Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number With Brain MRI Markers and Cognitive Function: A Meta-Analysis of Community-Based Cohorts","volume":"100","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2020.112891","article-title":"Recognition Memory Impairments and Amyloid-Beta Deposition of the Retrosplenial Cortex at the Early Stage of 5XFAD Mice","volume":"222","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e1dua, M.S., Guil-Guerrero, J.L., and Lopes, P.A. (2024). Behaviour Hallmarks in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease 5xFAD Mouse Model. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25126766"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10129","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1202-06.2006","article-title":"Intraneuronal Beta-Amyloid Aggregates, Neurodegeneration, and Neuron Loss in Transgenic Mice with Five Familial Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Mutations: Potential Factors in Amyloid Plaque Formation","volume":"26","author":"Oakley","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01588-0","article-title":"Microglia in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Mechanism and Potential Therapeutic Targets","volume":"8","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2911","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1136-17.2017","article-title":"Microglia-Mediated Synapse Loss in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"38","author":"Rajendran","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2011.10.004","article-title":"Role of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines Released from Microglia in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"87","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romero-Bueno, R., de la Cruz Ruiz, P., Artal-Sanz, M., Askjaer, P., and Dobrzynska, A. (2019). Nuclear Organization in Stress and Aging. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8070664"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gauthier, B.R., and Comaills, V. (2021). Nuclear Envelope Integrity in Health and Disease: Consequences on Genome Instability and Inflammation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22147281"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shukla, P.K., Delotterie, D.F., Xiao, J., Pierre, J.F., Rao, R., McDonald, M.P., and Khan, M.M. (2021). Alterations in the Gut-Microbial-Inflammasome-Brain Axis in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10040779"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e201800002","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.201800002","article-title":"Optical Study of Stress Hormone-Induced Nanoscale Structural Alteration in Brain Using Partial Wave Spectroscopic (PWS) Microscopy","volume":"12","author":"Bhandari","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biophotonics"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Pradhan, P., Subramanian, H., Liu, Y., Kim, Y., Roy, H., and Backman, V. (2007, January 5\u20139). Application of Mesoscopic Light Transport Theory to Ultra-Early Detection of Cancer in a Single Biological Cell. Proceedings of the 2007 APS March Meeting, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pradhan, P. (2021). Phase Statistics of Light Wave Reflected from One-Dimensional Optical Disordered Media and Its Effects on Light Transport Properties. Photonics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/photonics8110485"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Pradhan, P., Liu, Y., Kim, Y., Li, X., Wali, R.K., Roy, H.K., and Backman, V. (2006, January 13\u201317). Mesoscopic Light Transport Properties of a Single Biological Cell: Early Detection of Cancer. Proceedings of the 2006 APS March Meeting, Baltimore, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Pradhan, P., Subramanian, H., Damania, D., Roy, H., and Backman, V. (2009, January 16\u201320). Mesoscopic Light Reflection Spectroscopy of Weakly Disordered Dielectric Media: Nanoscopic to Mesoscopic Light Transport Properties of a Single Biological Cell and Ultra-Early Detection of Cancer. Proceedings of the 2009 APS March Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, USA."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9644","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.50.9644","article-title":"Localization of Light in Coherently Amplifying Random Media","volume":"50","author":"Pradhan","year":"1994","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7748","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-10-1686","article-title":"Optical Detection of Buccal Epithelial Nanoarchitectural Alterations in Patients Harboring Lung Cancer: Implications for Screening","volume":"70","author":"Roy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramanian, H., Pradhan, P., Kunte, D., Deep, N., Roy, H., and Backman, V. (2008, January 16\u201319). Single-Cell Partial Wave Spectroscopic Microscopy. Proceedings of the Biomedical Optics (2008), St. Petersburg, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1364\/BIOMED.2008.BTuC5"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243704","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3524523","article-title":"Quantification of Nanoscale Density Fluctuations Using Electron Microscopy: Light-Localization Properties of Biological Cells","volume":"97","author":"Pradhan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.47.882","article-title":"Anderson Localization in Two Dimensions","volume":"47","author":"Lee","year":"1981","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1364\/AOP.7.000459","article-title":"Transverse Anderson Localization of Light: A Tutorial","volume":"7","author":"Mafi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Photon."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Leary, J.F., Tarnok, A., and Georgakoudi, I. (2021, January 6\u201311). Quantification of Light Localization Properties to Study the Effect of Probiotic on Chronic Alcoholic Brain Cells via Confocal Imaging. Proceedings of the Imaging, Manipulation, and Analysis of Biomolecules, Cells, and Tissues XIX, Online Only, USA."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, H., Khan, S., Xiao, J., Nguyen, N., Das, A., Johnson, D., Fang-Liao, F., Frautschy, S.A., McDonald, M.P., and Pourmotabbed, T. (2025). Harnessing cGAS-STING Signaling to Counteract the Genotoxic-Immune Nexus in Tauopathy. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.09.27.678980"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"55718","article-title":"Novel Object Recognition Test for the Investigation of Learning and Memory in Mice","volume":"126","author":"Lueptow","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6924","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-90335-2","article-title":"Behavioral and Pathological Characteristics of 5xFAD Female Mice in the Early Stage","volume":"15","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2025.106065","article-title":"Crosstalk between DNA Damage and cGAS-STING Immune Pathway Drives Neuroinflammation and Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration in Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"130","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/1\/198\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T05:17:36Z","timestamp":1766726256000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/1\/198"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27010198"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27010198","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]}}}