{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T02:00:05Z","timestamp":1792029605257,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review delves into the complex relationship between short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by the gut microbiota and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). IBD, which includes Crohn\u2019s disease and ulcerative colitis, is a group of chronic gastrointestinal disorders with an increasing global incidence. Despite extensive research, the exact etiopathogenesis remains elusive, although a complex interplay involving genetic predisposition, environmental influences, and abnormal immune responses against commensal gut microbes is widely recognized. SCFAs, primarily acetate and butyrate, emerge as key microbial metabolites derived from the fermentation of dietary fiber. They exert profound effects on gut homeostasis, notably with butyrate serving as an essential energy source for colonocytes, strengthening epithelial integrity, actively modulating local and systemic immune functions, suppressing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and enhancing mucosal defense mechanisms. However, clinical trials exploring SCFA administration have frequently yielded variable and inconsistent results due to differences in study design and patient characteristics. This review thoroughly analyzes the diverse roles of SCFAs in the large intestine, focusing on the intestinal barrier, immune modulation, and microbiota. It critically examines the therapeutic potential of SCFAs, including acetate and propionate, in addition to the well-known butyrate, in IBD management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27021095","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T09:16:59Z","timestamp":1769159819000},"page":"1095","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Gut Microbiota-Derived Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Mechanistic Insights into Gut Inflammation, Barrier Function, and Therapeutic Potential"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3379-0582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Ottria","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8456-3331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susan","family":"Mirmajidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2227-1373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierangela","family":"Ciuffreda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e41120","article-title":"Advancements in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Narrative Review of Diagnostics, Management, Epidemiology, Prevalence, Patient Outcomes, Quality of Life, and Clinical Presentation","volume":"15","author":"Muzammil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2012-303954","article-title":"Advances in inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis: Linking host genetics and the microbiome","volume":"62","author":"Knights","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Appiah, J.K., Hayat, U., Garg, N., Asante, R., Donneyong, E., Haider, M.U., Patel, P., Khan, Z., and Siddiqui, A.A. (2025). Emerging Therapies in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Comprehensive Review. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14176119"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"253","article-title":"Interleukin-22: The hub bridging gut homeostasis and metabolism","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1089\/sur.2023.014","article-title":"Defining the Microbiome Components (Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi) and Microbiome Geodiversity","volume":"24","author":"Leonard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Surg. Infect."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8045646","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8045646","article-title":"The Human Microbiome and Its Impacts on Health","volume":"2020","author":"Ogunrinola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0904","DOI":"10.34133\/research.0904","article-title":"Microbial Interactions with Intestinal Lipid Digestion and Absorption: Emerging Targets for Metabolic Disorders","volume":"8","author":"Yin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3430","article-title":"Role of the gut microbiota in immunity and inflammatory disease","volume":"13","author":"Kamada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.4291\/wjgp.v6.i4.110","article-title":"New-found link between microbiota and obesity","volume":"6","author":"Chakraborti","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Pathophysiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The Human Microbiome Project Consortium (2012). A framework for human microbiome research. Nature, 486, 215\u2013221.","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11209"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ottria, R., Xynomilakis, O., Casati, S., and Ciuffreda, P. (2024). Pre- to Postbiotics: The Beneficial Roles of Pediatric Dysbiosis Associated with Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12081582"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2022.10.024","article-title":"Butyrate\u2019s role in human health and the current progress towards its clinical application to treat gastrointestinal disease","volume":"42","author":"Hodgkinson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2010-3301","article-title":"Ruminant Nutrition Symposium: Role of fermentation acid absorption in the regulation of ruminal pH","volume":"89","author":"Aschenbach","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765474","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.765474","article-title":"Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"8","author":"Cai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2014.14","article-title":"Phylogenetic distribution of three pathways for propionate production within the human gut microbiota","volume":"8","author":"Reichardt","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, H., Umar, S., Rust, B., Lazarova, D., and Bordonaro, M. (2019). Secondary Bile Acids and Short Chain Fatty Acids in the Colon: A Focus on Colonic Microbiome, Cell Proliferation, Inflammation, and Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20051214"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fusco, W., Lorenzo, M.B., Cintoni, M., Porcari, S., Rinninella, E., Kaitsas, F., Lener, E., Mele, M.C., Gasbarrini, A., and Collado, M.C. (2023). Short-Chain Fatty-Acid-Producing Bacteria: Key Components of the Human Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15092211"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devaux, C.A., Million, M., and Raoult, D. (2020). The Butyrogenic and Lactic Bacteria of the Gut Microbiota Determine the Outcome of Allogenic Hematopoietic Cell Transplant. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01642"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/45.5.1243","article-title":"Fermentation in the human large intestine and the available substrates","volume":"45","author":"Cummings","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.62.5.1589-1592.1996","article-title":"Pathways of acetate, propionate, and butyrate formation by the human fecal microbial flora","volume":"62","author":"Miller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.28.10.1221","article-title":"Short chain fatty acids in human large intestine, portal, hepatic and venous blood","volume":"28","author":"Cummings","year":"1987","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.13589","article-title":"Formation of propionate and butyrate by the human colonic microbiota","volume":"19","author":"Louis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6941.1998.tb00487.x","article-title":"Enumeration of amino acid fermenting bacteria in the human large intestine: Effects of pH and starch on peptide metabolism and dissimilation of amino acids","volume":"25","author":"Smith","year":"1998","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201100542","article-title":"Relevance of protein fermentation to gut health","volume":"56","author":"Windey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN20041150","article-title":"Contribution of acetate to butyrate formation by human faecal bacteria","volume":"91","author":"Duncan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37944","DOI":"10.1038\/srep37944","article-title":"Impact of the microbial derived short chain fatty acid propionate on host susceptibility to bacterial and fungal infections in vivo","volume":"6","author":"Ciarlo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2012.11.005","article-title":"Intestinal luminal nitrogen metabolism: Role of the gut microbiota and consequences for the host","volume":"68","author":"Davila","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2010.03.008","article-title":"Nursing our microbiota: Molecular linkages between bifidobacteria and milk oligosaccharides","volume":"18","author":"Sela","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Odamaki, T., Kato, K., Sugahara, H., Hashikura, N., Takahashi, S., Xiao, J.-Z., Abe, F., and Osawa, R. (2016). Age-related changes in gut microbiota composition from newborn to centenarian: A cross-sectional study. BMC Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-016-0708-5"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2574","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-021-00937-7","article-title":"Key bacterial taxa and metabolic pathways affecting gut short-chain fatty acid profiles in early life","volume":"15","author":"Tsukuda","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00605-x","article-title":"The gut microbiome as a modulator of healthy ageing","volume":"19","author":"Ghosh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fuad062","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuad062","article-title":"Exploitation of microbial activities at low pH to enhance planetary health","volume":"48","author":"Atasoy","year":"2024","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, R.-G., Zhou, D.-D., Wu, S.-X., Huang, S.-Y., Saimaiti, A., Yang, Z.-J., Shang, A., Zhao, C.-N., Gan, R.-Y., and Li, H.-B. (2022). Health Benefits and Side Effects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11182863"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1124\/mol.115.102301","article-title":"The Pharmacology and Function of Receptors for Short-Chain Fatty Acids","volume":"89","author":"Bolognini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8030","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1016088108","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acids and ketones directly regulate sympathetic nervous system via G protein-coupled receptor 41 (GPR41)","volume":"108","author":"Kimura","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00041.2018","article-title":"Free Fatty Acid Receptors in Health and Disease","volume":"100","author":"Kimura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2015-1007","article-title":"An Acetate-Specific GPCR, FFAR2, Regulates Insulin Secretion","volume":"29","author":"Priyadarshini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2014.280792","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acid sensing in rat duodenum","volume":"593","author":"Akiba","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230014","DOI":"10.1098\/rsob.230014","article-title":"Short chain fatty acids: Key regulators of the local and systemic immune response in inflammatory diseases and infections","volume":"13","author":"Ney","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.111661","article-title":"Role of microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids in nervous system disorders","volume":"139","author":"Mirzaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nankova, B.B., Agarwal, R., MacFabe, D.F., and La Gamma, E.F. (2014). Enteric bacterial metabolites propionic and butyric acid modulate gene expression, including CREB-dependent catecholaminergic neurotransmission, in PC12 cells--possible relevance to autism spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0103740"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2019.07.022","article-title":"Propionate suppresses hepatic gluconeogenesis via GPR43\/AMPK signaling pathway","volume":"672","author":"Yoshida","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2611","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201600305","article-title":"Importance of propionate for the repression of hepatic lipogenesis and improvement of insulin sensitivity in high-fat diet-induced obesity","volume":"60","author":"Weitkunat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.2011.12.4.319","article-title":"Butyrate regulates leptin expression through different signaling pathways in adipocytes","volume":"12","author":"Soliman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2398","DOI":"10.2337\/db14-1213","article-title":"Short-Chain Fatty Acids Protect Against High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity via a PPARgamma-Dependent Switch From Lipogenesis to Fat Oxidation","volume":"64","author":"Bleeker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.90231","article-title":"Vinegar intake reduces body weight, body fat mass, and serum triglyceride levels in obese Japanese subjects","volume":"73","author":"Kondo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-020-0188-7","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acids as potential regulators of skeletal muscle metabolism and function","volume":"2","author":"Frampton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-20-0018","article-title":"SCFAs alleviated steatosis and inflammation in mice with NASH induced by MCD","volume":"245","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2024.12.007","article-title":"Gut feelings on short-chain fatty acids to regulate respiratory health","volume":"36","author":"Rowland","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20210778","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived butyrate regulates gut mucus barrier repair by activating the macrophage\/WNT\/ERK signaling pathway","volume":"136","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1093\/bbb\/zbaa110","article-title":"Three main short-chain fatty acids inhibit the activation of THP-1 cells by Mycoplasma pneumoniae","volume":"85","author":"Wen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2021.105420","article-title":"The role of short-chain fatty acids in intestinal barrier function, inflammation, oxidative stress, and colonic carcinogenesis","volume":"165","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2013.12.016","article-title":"Microbiota-generated metabolites promote metabolic benefits via gut-brain neural circuits","volume":"156","author":"Goncalves","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2013.11.018","article-title":"Effect of oral consumption of probiotic Lactobacillus planatarum P-8 on fecal microbiota, SIgA, SCFAs, and TBAs of adults of different ages","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2020.103790","article-title":"Potential probiotic salami with dietary fiber modulates metabolism and gut microbiota in a human intervention study","volume":"66","author":"Pastoriza","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2878","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/135.12.2878","article-title":"Oral administration of butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, a butyrate-producing bacterium, decreases the formation of aberrant crypt foci in the colon and rectum of mice","volume":"135","author":"Ohkawara","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12499","article-title":"Lactobacillus salivarius Ren prevent the early colorectal carcinogenesis in 1, 2-dimethylhydrazine-induced rat model","volume":"117","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parada Venegas, D., De La Fuente, M.K., Landskron, G., Gonz\u00e1lez, M.J., Quera, R., Dijkstra, G., Harmsen, H.J.M., Faber, K.N., and Hermoso, M.A. (2019). Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)-Mediated Gut Epithelial and Immune Regulation and Its Relevance for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Front. Immunol., 10, Erratum in Front. Immunol.\u00a02019, 10, 1486.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01486"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2021.11.005","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived short chain fatty acids are potential mediators in gut inflammation","volume":"8","author":"Akhtar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103293","article-title":"Short chain fatty acids and its producing organisms: An overlooked therapy for IBD?","volume":"66","author":"Deleu","year":"2021","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R036012","article-title":"The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism","volume":"54","author":"Groen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cronin, P., Joyce, S.A., O\u2019Toole, P.W., and O\u2019Connor, E.M. (2021). Dietary Fibre Modulates the Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051655"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1002\/ame2.12255","article-title":"Association between intestinal microbiota and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Animal Model. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salvi, P.S., and Cowles, R.A. (2021). Butyrate and the Intestinal Epithelium: Modulation of Proliferation and Inflammation in Homeostasis and Disease. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10071775"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.3892\/ijo.2024.5632","article-title":"Butyrate as a promising therapeutic target in cancer: From pathogenesis to clinic (Review)","volume":"64","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2021.09.012","article-title":"The interaction among gut microbes, the intestinal barrier and short chain fatty acids","volume":"9","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2021.02.001","article-title":"Microbial Regulation of Host Physiology by Short-chain Fatty Acids","volume":"29","author":"Wells","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X.-F., Shao, J.-H., Liao, Y.-T., Wang, L.-N., Jia, Y., Dong, P.-J., Liu, Z.-Z., He, D.-D., Li, C., and Zhang, X. (2023). Regulation of short-chain fatty acids in the immune system. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1186892"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shin, Y., Han, S., Kwon, J., Ju, S., Choi, T.G., Kang, I., and Kim, S.S. (2023). Roles of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15204466"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198901053200105","article-title":"Treatment of diversion colitis with short-chain-fatty acid irrigation","volume":"320","author":"Harig","year":"1989","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02049697","article-title":"Treatment of diversion colitis by short-chain fatty acids. Prospective and double-blind study","volume":"34","author":"Guillemot","year":"1991","journal-title":"Dis. Colon Rectum"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01300754","article-title":"Rectal irrigation with short-chain fatty acids for distal ulcerative colitis","volume":"36","author":"Breuer","year":"1991","journal-title":"Prelim. Rep. Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02253492","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acid enemas: A cost-effective alternative in the treatment of nonspecific proctosigmoiditis","volume":"35","author":"Senagore","year":"1992","journal-title":"Dis. Colon. Rectum"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.1995.tb00386.x","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acid topical treatment in distal ulcerative colitis","volume":"9","author":"Vernia","year":"1995","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02049735","article-title":"Effects of short chain fatty acids on mucosal proliferation and inflammation of ileal pouches in patients with ulcerative colitis and familial polyposis","volume":"38","author":"Tonelli","year":"1995","journal-title":"Dis. Colon. Rectum"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"871","article-title":"Treatment of diversion colitis with short-chain fatty acids. Bacteriological study","volume":"19","author":"Neut","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gastroent\u00e9rol. Clin. Biol."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"731","article-title":"Treatment of refractory distal ulcerative colitis with short chain fatty acid enemas","volume":"91","author":"Patz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"2254","article-title":"Treatment of distal ulcerative colitis with short-chain fatty acid enemas. A placebo-controlled trial","volume":"41","author":"Scheppach","year":"1996","journal-title":"German-Austrian SCFA Study Group. Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.40.4.485","article-title":"Short chain fatty acid rectal irrigation for left-sided ulcerative colitis: A randomised, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"40","author":"Breuer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1080\/003655200750024371","article-title":"Local short-chain fatty acids supplementation without beneficial effect on inflammation in excluded rectum","volume":"35","author":"Schauber","year":"2000","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13914","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.13914","article-title":"Microbiota changes induced by microencapsulated sodium butyrate in patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"32","author":"Facchin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vernero, M., De Blasio, F., Ribaldone, D.G., Bugianesi, E., Pellicano, R., Saracco, G.M., Astegiano, M., and Caviglia, G.P. (2020). The Usefulness of Microencapsulated Sodium Butyrate Add-On Therapy in Maintaining Remission in Patients with Ulcerative Colitis: A Prospective Observational Study. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9123941"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v13.i7.1079","article-title":"A new oral formulation for the release of sodium butyrate in the ileo-cecal region and colon","volume":"13","author":"Roda","year":"2007","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005537411244","article-title":"Combined oral sodium butyrate and mesalazine treatment compared to oral mesalazine alone in ulcerative colitis: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study","volume":"45","author":"Vernia","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.2005.02639.x","article-title":"Oral butyrate for mildly to moderately active Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"22","author":"Morera","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietrzak, A., Banasiuk, M., Szczepanik, M., Borys-Iwanicka, A., Pytrus, T., Walkowiak, J., and Banaszkiewicz, A. (2022). Sodium Butyrate Effectiveness in Children and Adolescents with Newly Diagnosed Inflammatory Bowel Diseases-Randomized Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Trial. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14163283"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-024-02203-z","article-title":"Effects of short-chain fatty acid-butyrate supplementation on expression of circadian-clock genes, sleep quality, and inflammation in patients with active ulcerative colitis: A double-blind randomized controlled trial","volume":"23","author":"Firoozi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(92)91094-K","article-title":"Effect of butyrate enemas on the colonic mucosa in distal ulcerative colitis","volume":"103","author":"Scheppach","year":"1992","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2036.1996.d01-509.x","article-title":"Treatment of left-sided ulcerative colitis with butyrate enemas: A controlled trial","volume":"10","author":"Steinhart","year":"1996","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02065414","article-title":"Topical treatment of refractory distal ulcerative colitis with 5-ASA and sodium butyrate","volume":"40","author":"Vernia","year":"1995","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2362.2003.01130.x","article-title":"Topical butyrate improves efficacy of 5-ASA in refractory distal ulcerative colitis: Results of a multicentre trial","volume":"33","author":"Vernia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1080\/003655202317316105","article-title":"Butyrate inhibits NF-kappaB activation in lamina propria macrophages of patients with ulcerative colitis","volume":"37","author":"Gerke","year":"2002","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2010.04.002","article-title":"Effect of butyrate enemas on inflammation and antioxidant status in the colonic mucosa of patients with ulcerative colitis in remission","volume":"29","author":"Hamer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0b013e32833a6ca0","article-title":"Butyrate enemas do not affect human colonic MUC2 and TFF3 expression","volume":"22","author":"Hamer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2015.09.005","article-title":"Effect of butyrate enemas on gene expression profiles and endoscopic\/histopathological scores of diverted colorectal mucosa: A randomized trial","volume":"48","author":"Luceri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dig. Liver Dis."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/2\/1095\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T09:20:00Z","timestamp":1769160000000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/2\/1095"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27021095"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27021095","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]}}}