{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T15:49:29Z","timestamp":1792597769324,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769731200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is characterized by profound immune dysregulation where interleukins play a central role in determining disease severity and response to interventions. This review summarizes the role of interleukins in the immunopathogenesis of COVID-19, with particular emphasis on differences observed across major SARS-CoV-2 variants. Pro-inflammatory interleukins like IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, IL-2, IL-17 and IL-18 are critically involved in cytokine storm, hyperinflammation, and acute respiratory distress syndrome, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 contribute to immune regulation and resolution of inflammation. Elevated levels of IL-1\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-9, IL-16, IL-18 have been documented in the Delta variant as compared with the Omicron variant, with IL-6 being the most frequent interleukin reported to be increased across all SARS-CoV-2 variants relative to the ancestral Wuhan strain. Elevated IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10 levels have been associated with Omicron sub-variants. The review encompasses interleukin-based therapeutic strategies, where several IL-1 and IL-6 inhibitors were studied across clinical trials, but only tocilizumab has shown some promise against severe COVID-19. IL-2, IL-6, IL-15 and IL-21 levels were positively correlated with IgG and neutralizing antibody activity after vaccination with longevity of post-vaccination immunity being determined by IL-2 and IL-7.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27031391","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T11:09:22Z","timestamp":1769771362000},"page":"1391","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Interleukins in COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Immunopathogenesis, Therapeutic Perspectives and Vaccine-Induced Immune Responses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Supriya","family":"Mahajan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, School of Medical Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201306, UP, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saurabh","family":"Mahajan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Numed Super Speciality Hospital, Greater Noida 201306, UP, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akanksha","family":"Gusain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, School of Medical Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201306, UP, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2014.05.005","article-title":"To sense or not to sense viral RNA\u2014Essentials of coronavirus innate immune evasion","volume":"20","author":"Kindler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. 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