{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:41:07Z","timestamp":1791895267672,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ocular diseases, including glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy (DR), and age-related macular degeneration (AMD), remain major global causes of irreversible vision loss. Despite advances in clinical management, current therapies insufficiently address the shared metabolic, inflammatory, vascular, and neurodegenerative mechanisms underlying these conditions. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs), widely used for type 2 diabetes and obesity, have emerged as multi-target candidates for ocular therapeutics due to their pleiotropic anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, vasculoprotective, and neuroprotective properties. Preclinical studies consistently demonstrate that GLP-1RAs preserve blood\u2013retina barrier integrity, suppress pathological angiogenesis, mitigate oxidative and inflammatory stress, and protect retinal neurons from degeneration. Complementary clinical and real-world evidence shows a robust and reproducible reduction in glaucoma risk among GLP-1RA users across diabetic and non-diabetic populations. By contrast, findings for DR and AMD are more heterogeneous and appear context-dependent, with potential benefits most evident in early or non-exudative disease stages. Emerging safety considerations\u2014including reports of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy and early DR worsening in the setting of rapid glycemic improvement\u2014highlight the need for careful interpretation, individualized risk assessment, and appropriate ophthalmic monitoring. This review synthesizes molecular mechanisms, experimental data, clinical and pharmacoepidemiologic evidence, and safety signals to critically evaluate the therapeutic potential of GLP-1RAs in ocular disease. We also outline key translational challenges, including the need for ocular-targeted delivery strategies, prospective ophthalmology-specific trials, and precision-medicine approaches to determine when and how GLP-1RAs can be safely advanced as disease-modifying treatments in ophthalmology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27031432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T09:00:33Z","timestamp":1770022833000},"page":"1432","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists and Ocular Disease: Mechanisms, Evidence and Therapeutic Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8687-0763","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoming","family":"Gong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vision Center, Akron Children\u2019s Hospital, Akron, OH 44308, USA"},{"name":"Rebecca D. Considine Research Institute, Akron Children\u2019s Hospital, Akron, OH 44308, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Faruk H.","family":"\u00d6rge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vision Center, Akron Children\u2019s Hospital, Akron, OH 44308, USA"},{"name":"Rebecca D. Considine Research Institute, Akron Children\u2019s Hospital, Akron, OH 44308, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-025-01231-3","article-title":"GLP-1-based therapies for diabetes, obesity and beyond","volume":"24","author":"Drucker","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e194751","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI194751","article-title":"Antiinflammatory actions of glucagon-like peptide-1-based therapies beyond metabolic benefits","volume":"135","author":"Wong","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1788","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01289-8","article-title":"Glaucoma: Now and beyond","volume":"402","author":"Jayaram","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0000000000004507","article-title":"Real-world Associations Between GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Diabetic Retinopathy Accounting for Longitudinal Glycemic Control","volume":"45","author":"Talebi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Retina"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcjd.2025.07.002","article-title":"In The Eye Of Controversy: A Deeper Look Into The Impact Of Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonists (GLP1RA) on Diabetic Retinopathy and Non-Arteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy (NAION)","volume":"49","author":"Nadeem","year":"2025","journal-title":"Can. J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1080\/09286586.2024.2399764","article-title":"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists are Not Associated with an Increased Risk of Progressing to Vision-Threatening Diabetic Retinopathy","volume":"32","author":"Tauqeer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2304","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13339","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor expression in the human eye","volume":"20","author":"Hebsgaard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975032","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/975032","article-title":"Retinal pigment epithelial cells express a functional receptor for glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)","volume":"2013","author":"Puddu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2018.03.001","article-title":"Mechanisms of Action and Therapeutic Application of Glucagon-like Peptide-1","volume":"27","author":"Drucker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01931-z","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor: Mechanisms and advances in therapy","volume":"9","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.15683","article-title":"The role of glia in the physiology and pharmacology of glucagon-like peptide-1: Implications for obesity, diabetes, neurodegeneration and glaucoma","volume":"179","author":"Cui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70059","DOI":"10.1002\/edm2.70059","article-title":"Incidence of Glaucoma in Type 2 Diabetes Patients Treated With GLP-1 Receptor Agonists: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"8","author":"Asif","year":"2025","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2025.4090","article-title":"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Age-Related Macular Degeneration-Where Do We Stand?","volume":"143","author":"Talcott","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2025.0349","article-title":"Semaglutide and Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Risk Among Patients With Diabetes","volume":"143","author":"Hsu","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.17473","article-title":"Semaglutide and non-arteritic anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy: Review and interpretation of reported association","volume":"103","author":"Amini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1607141","article-title":"Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"375","author":"Marso","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdiacomp.2022.108255","article-title":"Progression of retinopathy with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists with cardiovascular benefits in type 2 diabetes\u2014A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"36","author":"Yoshida","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Complicat."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1097\/ICU.0000000000001137","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and the eye","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albanese, G.M., Visioli, G., Alisi, L., Giovannetti, F., Lucchino, L., Armentano, M., Catania, F., Marenco, M., and Gharbiya, M. (2025). Ocular Effects of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists: A Review of Current Evidence and Safety Concerns. Diabetology, 6.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202508.0031.v1"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Z., Yang, Z., Tian, D., and Chen, Y. (2025). Unlocking the potential of GLP-1 receptor agonists in ocular therapeutics: From molecular pathways to clinical impact. Front. Pharmacol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1618079"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R200","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-21-0130","article-title":"How glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists work","volume":"10","author":"Andreasen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr. Connect."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-022-00826-9","article-title":"Signaling Mechanism for Modulation by GLP-1 and Exendin-4 of GABA Receptors on Rat Retinal Ganglion Cells","volume":"38","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-24-00001","article-title":"Topical administration of GLP-1 eyedrops improves retinal ganglion cell function by facilitating presynaptic GABA release in early experimental diabetes","volume":"21","author":"Shao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.20962","article-title":"GLP-1 Treatment Improves Diabetic Retinopathy by Alleviating Autophagy through GLP-1R-ERK1\/2-HDAC6 Signaling Pathway","volume":"14","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, H.R., Ma, X.F., Lin, W.J., Hao, M., Yu, X.Y., Li, H.X., Xu, C.Y., and Kuang, H.Y. (2020). Neuroprotective Role of GLP-1 Analog for Retinal Ganglion Cells via PINK1\/Parkin-Mediated Mitophagy in Diabetic Retinopathy. Front. Pharmacol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.589114"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2584","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.15-19006","article-title":"Protective Effect of a GLP-1 Analog on Ischemia-Reperfusion Induced Blood-Retinal Barrier Breakdown and Inflammation","volume":"57","author":"Goncalves","year":"2016","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93382","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.93382","article-title":"Myeloid cell modulation by a GLP-1 receptor agonist regulates retinal angiogenesis in ischemic retinopathy","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2023.112013","article-title":"Liraglutide intervention improves high-glucose-induced reactive gliosis of Muller cells and ECM dysregulation","volume":"576","author":"Shan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"724648","article-title":"Inflammation in retinal disease","volume":"2013","author":"Whitcup","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Inflam."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-013-3145-0","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide 1 analogue therapy directly modulates innate immune-mediated inflammation in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"57","author":"Hogan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.2337\/db15-0443","article-title":"Topical Administration of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Prevents Retinal Neurodegeneration in Experimental Diabetes","volume":"65","author":"Hernandez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-021-00955-7","article-title":"Obese mice weight loss role on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and endoplasmic reticulum stress treated by a GLP-1 receptor agonist","volume":"46","author":"Aguila","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12839","article-title":"Semaglutide as a promising antiobesity drug","volume":"20","author":"Christou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s00395-015-0476-7","article-title":"Exendin-4 protects against post-myocardial infarction remodelling via specific actions on inflammation and the extracellular matrix","volume":"110","author":"Robinson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Basic. Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sampedro, J., Bogdanov, P., Ramos, H., Sola-Adell, C., Turch, M., Valeri, M., Simo-Servat, O., Lagunas, C., Simo, R., and Hernandez, C. (2019). New Insights into the Mechanisms of Action of Topical Administration of GLP-1 in an Experimental Model of Diabetic Retinopathy. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8030339"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21029","article-title":"Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia","volume":"541","author":"Liddelow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.107776","article-title":"Neurotoxic Reactive Astrocytes Drive Neuronal Death after Retinal Injury","volume":"31","author":"Guttenplan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2022.08.003","article-title":"Divergent roles for the gut intraepithelial lymphocyte GLP-1R in control of metabolism, microbiota, and T cell-induced inflammation","volume":"34","author":"Wong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-vision-091517-034416","article-title":"Vascular Inflammation Risk Factors in Retinal Disease","volume":"5","author":"Soto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-3209-8_53","article-title":"Chronic intraocular inflammation and development of retinal degenerative disease","volume":"801","author":"Egwuagu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrillo, F., Gesualdo, C., Platania, C.B.M., D\u2019Amico, M., and Trotta, M.C. (2021). Editorial: Chronic Inflammation and Neurodegeneration in Retinal Disease. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.784770"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puddu, A., and Maggi, D. (2022). Anti-Inflammatory Effects of GLP-1R Activation in the Retina. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232012428"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oh, Y.S., and Jun, H.S. (2017). Effects of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 on Oxidative Stress and Nrf2 Signaling. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19010026"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9247947","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9247947","article-title":"Geniposide Attenuates Hyperglycemia-Induced Oxidative Stress and Inflammation by Activating the Nrf2 Signaling Pathway in Experimental Diabetic Retinopathy","volume":"2021","author":"Tu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell Longev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2020.1737137","article-title":"Liraglutide Up-regulation Thioredoxin Attenuated Muller Cells Apoptosis in High Glucose by Regulating Oxidative Stress and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress","volume":"45","author":"Ren","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.108271","article-title":"GLP-1 Receptor Agonist NLY01 Reduces Retinal Inflammation and Neuron Death Secondary to Ocular Hypertension","volume":"33","author":"Sterling","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawrence, E.C.N., Guo, M., Schwartz, T.D., Wu, J., Lu, J., Nikonov, S., Sterling, J.K., and Cui, Q.N. (2023). Topical and systemic GLP-1R agonist administration both rescue retinal ganglion cells in hypertensive glaucoma. Front. Cell Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2023.1156829"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s13041-025-01224-8","article-title":"Systemic semaglutide provides a mild vasoprotective and antineuroinflammatory effect in a rat model of ocular hypertensive glaucoma","volume":"18","author":"Mouhammad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Brain"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-024-06132-5","article-title":"Risk of diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular oedema with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists in type 2 diabetes: A real-world data study from a global federated database","volume":"67","author":"Eleftheriadou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13172","article-title":"Semaglutide, reduction in glycated haemoglobin and the risk of diabetic retinopathy","volume":"20","author":"Vilsboll","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2014.07.001","article-title":"Cellular responses following retinal injuries and therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"43","author":"Cuenca","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2021-319232","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist use is associated with reduced risk for glaucoma","volume":"107","author":"Sterling","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.90273","article-title":"Prescription of glucagon-like peptide 1 agonists and risk of subsequent open-angle glaucoma in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"21","author":"Chuang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2024.03.004","article-title":"Association between Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists and the Risk of Glaucoma in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"131","author":"Niazi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2024.08.023","article-title":"Comparative Effects of Glucagon-like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonists and Metformin on Glaucoma Risk in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"132","author":"Muayad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2025.02.011","article-title":"Risk of Glaucoma in Patients without Diabetes Using a Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonist","volume":"132","author":"Vasu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2025.01.016","article-title":"Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist Impact on Chronic Ocular Disease Including Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"132","author":"Allan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2024.12.024","article-title":"GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Use and Incidence of Glaucoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"271","author":"Amaral","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e93751","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.93751","article-title":"Diabetic retinopathy: Current understanding, mechanisms, and treatment strategies","volume":"2","author":"Duh","year":"2017","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1177\/14782715241244843","article-title":"Existing and emerging GLP-1 receptor agonist therapy: Ramifications for diabetic retinopathy screening","volume":"54","author":"Varughese","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. R. Coll. Physicians Edinb."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/13813455.2023.2274279","article-title":"Exendin-4, a GLP-1 receptor agonist, suppresses diabetic retinopathy in vivo and in vitro","volume":"131","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arch. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.107680","article-title":"Exendin-4 promotes retinal ganglion cell survival and function by inhibiting calcium channels in experimental diabetes","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1861940","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1861940","article-title":"GLP-1 RA Improves Diabetic Retinopathy by Protecting the Blood-Retinal Barrier Through GLP-1R-ROCK-p-MLC Signaling Pathway","volume":"2022","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-023-02135-7","article-title":"The effect of GLP-1 receptor agonist lixisenatide on experimental diabetic retinopathy","volume":"60","author":"Oezer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2023.07.002","article-title":"GLP-1 receptor agonists and diabetic retinopathy: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials","volume":"68","author":"Kapoor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, D., Li, N., Hou, R., Zhang, X., Wu, L., Sundquist, J., Sundquist, K., and Ji, J. (2023). Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and diabetic retinopathy: Nationwide cohort and Mendelian randomization studies. BMC Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-023-02753-6"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-021-01190-z","article-title":"Early Worsening of Retinopathy in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes After Rapid Improvement in Glycaemic Control: A Systematic Review","volume":"13","author":"Akil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.043353","article-title":"Exploring the Possible Impact of Unbalanced Open-Label Drop-In of Glucose-Lowering Medications on EXSCEL Outcomes","volume":"141","author":"Bethel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00265-2","article-title":"Age-related macular degeneration","volume":"7","author":"Fleckenstein","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S518398","article-title":"Real-World Outcomes with Complement Inhibitors for Geographic Atrophy: A Comparative Study of Pegacetacoplan versus Avacincaptad Pegol","volume":"19","author":"Rush","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2017.08.038","article-title":"The Progression of Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"125","author":"Fleckenstein","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.66.5.15","article-title":"Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonist Stimulation Inhibits Laser-Induced Choroidal Neovascularization by Suppressing Intraocular Inflammation","volume":"66","author":"Machida","year":"2025","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2241","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0000000000004616","article-title":"Impact of GLP-1 receptor agonists for type 2 diabetes mellitus on the development and progression of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"45","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Retina"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2025.3821","article-title":"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists and Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"143","author":"Ahuja","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2025.1455","article-title":"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists and Risk of Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"143","author":"Shor","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2025.10.021","article-title":"Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Risk of Cataract Development","volume":"281","author":"Ahuja","year":"2026","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2017.10.010","article-title":"Uveitis: Diagnostic work-up. A literature review and recommendations from an expert committee","volume":"16","author":"Seve","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2025.2822","article-title":"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists and Risk of Uveitis","volume":"143","author":"Mohan","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-023-06236-5","article-title":"Effects of newer-generation anti-diabetics on diabetic retinopathy: A critical review","volume":"262","author":"Ntentakis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1080\/17446651.2025.2459720","article-title":"Association between glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists and risk of diabetic retinopathy: A disproportionality analysis using FDA adverse event reporting system data","volume":"20","author":"Singh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7535","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.70160","article-title":"Addressing the risk of ocular complications of GLP-1RAs; a multi-disciplinary expert consensus","volume":"27","author":"Carter","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2024.2296","article-title":"Risk of Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy in Patients Prescribed Semaglutide","volume":"142","author":"Hathaway","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2024.6555","article-title":"Semaglutide and Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy","volume":"143","author":"Cai","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3094","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.16316","article-title":"Use of semaglutide and risk of non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: A Danish-Norwegian cohort study","volume":"27","author":"Simonsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1186\/s40942-024-00620-x","article-title":"Once-weekly semaglutide doubles the five-year risk of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy in a Danish cohort of 424,152 persons with type 2 diabetes","volume":"10","author":"Grauslund","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Retina Vitreous"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orcp.2025.01.011","article-title":"Semaglutide: Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy in the FDA adverse event reporting system\u2014A disproportionality analysis","volume":"19","author":"Azab","year":"2025","journal-title":"Obes. Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-024-04112-8","article-title":"Risk of ophthalmic adverse drug reactions in patients prescribed glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists: A pharmacovigilance study based on the FDA adverse event reporting system database","volume":"88","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2025.05.007","article-title":"Association of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists With Optic Nerve and Retinal Adverse Events: A Population-Based Observational Study Across 180 Countries","volume":"277","author":"Lakhani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2024.10.030","article-title":"Association between Semaglutide and Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy: A Multinational Population-Based Study","volume":"132","author":"Chou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2526327","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2025.26327","article-title":"Semaglutide or Tirzepatide and Optic Nerve and Visual Pathway Disorders in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2025.2489","article-title":"Ocular Adverse Events With Semaglutide: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"143","author":"Natividade","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/3\/1432\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T09:02:17Z","timestamp":1770022937000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/3\/1432"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27031432"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27031432","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]}}}