{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:49:39Z","timestamp":1787028579000,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770249600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SRUG22051812086"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SRUG22051812086"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Technology Innovation Agency"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Globally, antibiotic resistance is a growing concern, motivating the search for alternatives. Bovine mastitis is an inflammatory disease of the udder caused by various microorganisms, many of which are resistant to various antibiotics, impacting the quality of dairy products and farmer income. In this study, the in vitro bioactivity of the methanol leaf extract, fractions (ethyl acetate (CeEtOAc), butanol (CeBuOH), hexane (CeHx), dichloromethane CeDCM), and water (CeAq), and a purified compound, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside isolated from the CeEtOAc fraction of Combretum elaeagnoides Klotzsch, were investigated against six Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) strains isolated from clinical cases of bovine mastitis and two reference ATCC strains (S. aureus ATCC 29213 and S. epidermidis ATCC 35984). Methods used for assessing bioactivity included serial microdilution for antibacterial efficacy, crystal violet staining and p-iodonitrotetrazolium (INT) metabolic assays for anti-biofilm activity, and a microdilution assay for anti-quorum-sensing potential. The anti-inflammatory assays included 15-lipoxygenase enzyme inhibition and nitric oxide assays. Cytotoxicity screening was conducted using a tetrazolium-based colorimetric assay against bovine dermis cells. The extracts and fractions exhibited moderate to good antibacterial activity with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 0.07 to 1.04 mg\/mL, with the ethyl acetate fraction being the most effective. The anti-biofilm activity of the extract, fractions, and isolated compound (quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside) varied at time zero (T0), with inhibition ranging from 3% to 100%. The CeDCM and CeEtOAc fractions exhibited the most potent anti-biofilm effects after 24 h, with inhibition ranging from 24% to 91%. The extracts and fractions exhibited significant inhibition (&gt;50%) of biofilm within the incubation times (T0\u2013T48), and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside alone had &gt;60% inhibition at 48 h. The CeEtOAc fraction had the most significant anti-quorum-sensing activity (IC50 &lt; 0.08 mg\/mL). The methanol extract and fractions exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity, inhibiting nitric oxide production (IC50: 7\u201326 \u00b5g\/mL). In contrast, the CeAq, CeHx, and CeDCM fractions showed the best inhibitory activity against the 15-lipoxygenase enzyme (IC50 = 3\u20134 \u00b5g\/mL). The extracts and fractions were non-cytotoxic to bovine dermis cells (LC50 = 0.88\u20131 mg\/mL). Combretum elaeagnoides extract and its fractions are recommended for further investigation as potential herbal treatments for the management of mastitis and its symptoms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27031579","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T15:24:19Z","timestamp":1770305059000},"page":"1579","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["In Vitro Bioactivity of Leaf Extract Fractions and Quercetin-3-O-Rhamnoside from Combretum elaeagnoides Against Staphylococcus Species Implicated in Causing Bovine Mastitis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9901-9542","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosemary Chinelo","family":"Erhabor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean Paul","family":"Dzoyem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, Dschang P.O. Box 96, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Inge-Marie","family":"Petzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3211-8500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muna A.","family":"Abdalla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, University of Kiel, Hermann-Rodewald\u2212Str. 2, 24118 Kiel, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8447-0613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lyndy Joy","family":"McGaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a1937","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v88i1.1937","article-title":"The spread and antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus aureus in South African dairy herds\u2014A review","volume":"88","author":"Karzis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-015-0958-8","article-title":"Control of bovine mastitis: Old and recent therapeutic approaches","volume":"72","author":"Gomes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balemi, A., Gumi, B., Amenu, K., Girma, S., Gebru, M., Tekle, M., R\u00edus, A.A., D\u2019Souza, D.H., Agga, G.E., and Kerro Dego, O. (2021). Prevalence of mastitis and antibiotic resistance of bacterial isolates from cmt positive milk samples obtained from dairy cows, camels, and goats in two pastoral districts in southern Ethiopia. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11061530"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.20.0156","article-title":"Bovine mastitis: Risk factors, therapeutic strategies, and alternative treatments\u2014A review","volume":"33","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.14393\/BJ-v36n1a2020-42137","article-title":"In vitro antimicrobial activity of Mexican plants on bovine mastitis bacteria: Preliminary studies","volume":"36","author":"Marrero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosci. J."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Harvard Health (2020). Understanding Acute and Chronic Inflammation, Harvard Health Publishing (Harvard Medical School). Available online: https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/staying-healthy\/understanding-acute-and-chronic-inflammation."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0897.2004.00160.x","article-title":"Mastitis and fertility in cattle\u2014Possible involvement of inflammation or immune activation in embryonic mortality","volume":"51","author":"Hansen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cobirka, M., Tancin, V., and Slama, P. (2020). Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10122212"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pascu, C., Herman, V., Iancu, I., and Costinar, L. (2022). Etiology of mastitis and antimicrobial resistance in dairy cattle farms in the western part of Romania. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11010057"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3903","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S234610","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: Implications and costs","volume":"12","author":"Dadgostar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect Drug Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2021.11.051","article-title":"In vitro antimicrobial, antibiofilm and antioxidant activities of six South African plants with efficacy against selected foodborne pathogens","volume":"146","author":"Erhabor","year":"2022","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705814","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1705814","article-title":"The role of bacterial biofilm in antibiotic resistance and food contamination","volume":"2020","author":"Abebe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"16","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"45","author":"Foster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2200","article-title":"Waves of resistance in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"7","author":"Chambers","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00016-10","article-title":"Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance","volume":"74","author":"Davies","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.2174\/1874285801307010059","article-title":"Multidrug efflux pumps in Staphylococcus aureus: An update","volume":"7","author":"Costa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Open Microbiol. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.VMBF-0016-2015","article-title":"Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance","volume":"4","author":"Munita","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.3934\/microbiol.2018.3.482","article-title":"An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria","volume":"4","author":"Reygaert","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIMS Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-8741(98)00067-1","article-title":"The preliminary isolation and of several antibacterial compounds from Combretum erythrophyllum (Combretaceae)","volume":"62","author":"Martini","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2011.10.004","article-title":"Isolation of antioxidant constituents from Combretum apiculatum subsp. apiculatum","volume":"79","author":"Aderogba","year":"2012","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2019.07.024","article-title":"The potential of South African medicinal plants against microbial biofilm and quorum sensing of foodborne pathogens: A review","volume":"126","author":"Erhabor","year":"2019","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2021.113981","article-title":"In vitro bioactivity of the fractions and isolated compound from Combretum elaeagnoides leaf extract against selected foodborne pathogens","volume":"273","author":"Erhabor","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khunoana, E.T., Eloff, J.N., Ramadwa, T.E., Nkadimeng, S.M., Selepe, M.A., and McGaw, L.J. (2022). In vitro antiproliferative activity of Ptaeroxylon obliquum leaf extracts, fractions and isolated compounds on several cancer cell lines. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app122111004"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akinboye, A.O., Famuyide, I.M., Petzer, I.-M., and McGaw, L.J. (2023). In vitro antibacterial activity of selected South African plants against drug-resistant staphylococci isolated from clinical cases of bovine mastitis. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13095560"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jambwa, P., Makhubu, F.N., Matope, G., Fouche, G., and McGaw, L.J. (2022). Bioassay guided fractionation of Senna singueana and its potential for development of poultry phytogenic feed additives. Front. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.800272"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-8741(00)00405-0","article-title":"An investigation on the biological activity of Combretum species","volume":"75","author":"McGaw","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2008.07.051","article-title":"The biological activity and chemistry of the southern African Combretaceae","volume":"119","author":"Eloff","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.4102\/abc.v41i1.36","article-title":"A conspectus of Combretum (Combretaceae) in southern Africa, with taxonomic and nomenclatural notes on species and sections","volume":"41","author":"Jordaan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bothalia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2006.09.010","article-title":"The antifungal activity of twenty-four southern African Combretum species (Combretaceae)","volume":"73","author":"Masoko","year":"2007","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2023.12.035","article-title":"In vitro biological activities of Combretum molle R.Br.ex G.Don (Combretaceae) against mastitis-causing organisms","volume":"165","author":"Erhabor","year":"2024","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T., Ballings, P., and Coates Palgrave, M. (2021, January 05). Flora of Zimbabwe: Information About the Species Data Pages. Available online: https:\/\/www.zimbabweflora.co.zw\/speciesdata\/about.php."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4238625","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/4238625","article-title":"Ethnobotanical study of plants used in the management of HIV\/AIDS-related diseases in Livingstone, Southern Province, Zambia","volume":"2016","author":"Chinsembu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2018.09.007","article-title":"Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in the management of HIV\/AIDS opportunistic diseases in Lusaka, Zambia","volume":"122","author":"Chinsembu","year":"2019","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Study on in vitro antimicrobial effects of some selected plants on Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine clinical mastitis","volume":"8","author":"Tolosa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Internet J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-011-0054-4","article-title":"In vitro antimicrobial activity of Combretum molle (Combretaceae) against Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from crossbred dairy cows with clinical mastitis","volume":"44","author":"Regassa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). ATCC 29213. Available online: https:\/\/www.atcc.org\/products\/29213."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). ATCC 35984. Available online: https:\/\/www.atcc.org\/products\/35984."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). ATCC 39183. Available online: https:\/\/www.atcc.org\/products\/39183."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). ATCC 13076. Available online: https:\/\/www.atcc.org\/products\/13076."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). ATCC 25922. Available online: https:\/\/www.atcc.org\/products\/25922."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). ATCC 33560. Available online: https:\/\/www.atcc.org\/products\/33560."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orlandi, V.T., Bolognese, F., Chiodaroli, L., Armenia, I., Caruso, E., and Malacarne, M.C. (2024). Antibiofilm activity of Combretum micranthum G. Don Catechin-Sugar Phytocomplex on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29092091"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Relucenti, M., Familiari, G., Donfrancesco, O., Taurino, M., Li, X., Chen, R., Artini, M., Papa, R., and Selan, L. (2021). Microscopy methods for biofilm imaging: Focus on SEM and VP-SEM Pros and Cons. Biology, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology10010051"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307801","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1307801","article-title":"Anti-biofilm, antibac-terial, and anti-quorum sensing activities of selected South African plants traditionally used to treat diarrhoea","volume":"2022","author":"Adeyemo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1177\/08959374970110012101","article-title":"Nutritional influences on biofilm development","volume":"11","author":"Bowden","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adv. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02885-19","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02885-19","article-title":"Nutrient level determines biofilm characteristics and the subsequent impact on microbial corrosion and biocide effectiveness","volume":"86","author":"Lepkova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a012427","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a012427","article-title":"Bacterial quorum sensing: Its role in virulence and possibilities for its control","volume":"2","author":"Rutherford","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2007.03.009","article-title":"Dietary phytochemicals as quorum sensing inhibitors","volume":"78","author":"Vattem","year":"2007","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2023.01.028","article-title":"An invitro study on the potential of selected South African plant extracts to prevent and treat bovine mastitis","volume":"154","author":"Ogbuadike","year":"2023","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2018.11.001","article-title":"Emerging role of 12\/15-Lipoxygenase (ALOX15) in human pathologies","volume":"73","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1186\/s10020-023-00762-y","article-title":"Sustained activation of 12\/15 lipoxygenase (12\/15 LOX) contributes to impaired renal recovery post ischemic injury in male SHR compared to females","volume":"29","author":"Mohamed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S199377","article-title":"Inhibition of nitric oxide production and free radical scavenging activities of four South African medicinal plants","volume":"12","author":"Adebayo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2006.09.002","article-title":"Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity of four known and one new triterpenoid from Combretum imberbe (Combretaceae)","volume":"110","author":"Angeh","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-017-0421-5","article-title":"Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities of Combretin A and Combretin B isolated from Combretum fragrans F. HOFFM (Combretaceae) leaves","volume":"26","author":"Mbiantcha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selogatwe, K.M., Asong, J.A., Struwig, M., Ndou, R.V., and Aremu, A.O. (2021). A review of ethnoveterinary knowledge, biological activities and secondary metabolites of medicinal woody plants used for managing animal health in South Africa. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci8100228"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2025.07.019","article-title":"South African medicinal plants as natural defences against bovine mastitis: A review","volume":"184","author":"Masuku","year":"2025","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2005.01.004","article-title":"In vitro antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of 33 West African plants used for treatment of malaria","volume":"98","author":"Zirihi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2008.04.003","article-title":"Antifungal and antibacterial activity of seven traditionally used South African plant species active against Candida albicans","volume":"74","author":"Shai","year":"2008","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.4102\/sajs.v108i1\/2.689","article-title":"Five Ochna species have high antibacterial activity and more than 10 antibacterial compounds","volume":"108","author":"Makhafola","year":"2012","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2736","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2020.2736-2742","article-title":"Prevalence and antimicrobial drug resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cow milk samples","volume":"13","author":"Mphahlele","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-957563","article-title":"A sensitive and quick method to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of plant extracts for bacteria","volume":"64","author":"Eloff","year":"1998","journal-title":"Planta Medica"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2009.02747.x","article-title":"The in vitro anti-biofilm activity of selected culinary herbs and medicinal plants against Listeria monocytogenes","volume":"50","author":"Sandasi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Klan\u010dnik, A., Podobnik, P., Mo\u017eina, S.S., Raspor, P., Bohinc, K., and Jer\u0161ek, B. (2014, January 28\u201330). Determination of viable biofilm cells in microtiter plates. Proceedings of the II International Congress, Food Technology, Quality and Safety, Novi Sad, Serbia."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adebayo, S.A., Dzoyem, J.P., Shai, L.J., and Eloff, J.N. (2015). The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of 25 plant species used traditionally to treat pain in southern Africa. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-015-0669-5"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"61","article-title":"Cryptomeria japonica essential oil inhibits the growth of drug-resistant skin pathogens and LPS-Induced nitric oxide and Pro-Inflammatory cytokine production","volume":"58","author":"Yoon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pol. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2019.06.023","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory potential of South African medicinal plants used for the treatment of sexually transmitted infections","volume":"125","author":"Lawal","year":"2019","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2006.08.029","article-title":"Evaluation of Athrixia bush tea for cytotoxicity, antioxidant activity, caffeine content and presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids","volume":"110","author":"McGaw","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/3\/1579\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T08:17:58Z","timestamp":1770625078000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/3\/1579"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27031579"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27031579","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]}}}