{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:49:39Z","timestamp":1787028579183,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,15]],"date-time":"2026-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771113600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The incidence of cancer-associated thrombosis has increased in recent years. While the association between venous thromboembolism (VTE) and chemotherapy is well established, there is no clear link between immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and VTE risk. Many risk assessment models (RAMs) have been developed to identify high-risk patients who need prophylaxis. However, these models are validated in patients undergoing chemotherapy, while they are scarce in those receiving immunotherapy. Moreover, the mechanisms linking ICIs to thrombosis are still a matter of debate. They include the upregulation of pro-inflammatory intracellular pathways, the release of cytokines, the activation of innate immune cells, the release of tissue factors and platelet activation, and the increase in adhesion molecules, thus resulting in the recruitment of agents involved in coagulation. Promising biomarkers are emerging to identify patients undergoing ICIs who are at high risk of developing VTE and need prophylaxis. In this review we investigate the possible causation between cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) and immunotherapy and the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. Thus, we suggest the most appropriate therapeutic approaches based on currently available data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27041874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T10:14:32Z","timestamp":1771236872000},"page":"1874","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Cancer-Associated Thrombosis in Patients Treated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Alice","family":"Ilari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione San Gerardo dei Tintori, 20900 Monza, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20900 Monza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Ida","family":"Abbate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione San Gerardo dei Tintori, 20900 Monza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melina","family":"Verso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal, Vascular and Emergency Medicine\u2014Stroke Unit, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mara","family":"Graziani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal, Vascular and Emergency Medicine\u2014Stroke Unit, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pietro","family":"Cafaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione San Gerardo dei Tintori, 20900 Monza, Italy"},{"name":"Medicine and Surgery Department, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4568-5739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Sala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione San Gerardo dei Tintori, 20900 Monza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Colonese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione San Gerardo dei Tintori, 20900 Monza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7611-7369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego Luigi","family":"Cortinovis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione San Gerardo dei Tintori, 20900 Monza, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20900 Monza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4251-8889","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Canova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione San Gerardo dei Tintori, 20900 Monza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtha.2025.03.019","article-title":"The incidence and risk of venous thromboembolism in patients with active malignancy and isolated superficial venous thrombosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis (IROVAM\u2013iSVT review)","volume":"23","author":"Bailey","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. 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