{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T15:21:33Z","timestamp":1782573693387,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parkia speciosa (P.\u00a0speciosa), a plant utilized in traditional medicine, has shown promise in various therapeutic applications and contains multiple bioactive components (saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, polyphenols, and terpenoids). These bioactive compounds have attracted increasing scientific interest due to their ability to modulate key cancer-associated pathways, including the inhibition of cell proliferation and migration and the suppression of oxidative stress and inflammation mechanisms. However, despite P. speciosa\u2019s historically long and wide-ranging usage, a comprehensive investigation of these properties has not been conducted for its pod. This study investigated the effects of P. speciosa empty pod extract (PSET) on human colorectal cancer cells. The extract demonstrated significant dose-dependent inhibition of colorectal cell migration, invasion, and colony formation while exhibiting no cytotoxicity toward normal colon epithelial cells. Western blot analysis confirmed reduced expression of Matrix metalloproteinases 2 (MMP2), Matrix metalloproteinases 9 (MMP9), and N-cadherin, indicating suppression of the epithelial\u2013mesenchymal transition (EMT). These findings demonstrate that the PSET effectively inhibits metastasis in colorectal cancer cells through the EMT pathway, suggesting its potential as a dietary supplement or therapeutic agent for colorectal cancer treatment. Our research provides support for the development of natural, less toxic alternative cancer treatments. Therefore, PSET shows potential for development as a dietary supplement or therapeutic agent for the treatment of colon cancer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27042072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T11:39:10Z","timestamp":1771846750000},"page":"2072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Suppressive Potential of Ethanolic Extracts of Parkia speciosa Hassk. Empty Pods Against Colon Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Athit","family":"Chaiwichien","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Supawadee","family":"Osotprasit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tepparit","family":"Samrit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"},{"name":"Food Bioactive Compounds Research Unit, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4229-0803","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pornanan","family":"Kueakhai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"},{"name":"Food Bioactive Compounds Research Unit, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Narin","family":"Changklungmoa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"},{"name":"Food Bioactive Compounds Research Unit, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"7","article-title":"Cancer Statistics, 2021","volume":"71","author":"Siegel","year":"2021","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/ckz216","article-title":"Cancer statistics: A comparison between World Health Organization (WHO) and Global Burden of Disease (GBD)","volume":"30","author":"Mattiuzzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2012.03.006","article-title":"Molecular networks that regulate cancer metastasis","volume":"22","author":"Spano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2016.09.011","article-title":"Characteristics and significance of the pre-metastatic niche","volume":"30","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-01195-4","article-title":"Targeting metastatic cancer","volume":"27","author":"Ganesh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.100","article-title":"Tumor metastasis: Mechanistic insights and therapeutic interventions","volume":"2","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3011","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-19-0458","article-title":"Defining the hallmarks of metastasis","volume":"79","author":"Welch","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-025-03720-2","article-title":"Medicinal plants: Nutritional, immunological and therapeutic role in treating cancer-related malnutrition: A comprehensive review","volume":"25","author":"Alkafaas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Xiu, J., Yang, H., Han, W., and Jin, Y. (2025). Network pharmacology and bioinformatics study of six medicinal food homologous plants against colorectal cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26030930"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1039\/D4RA05089D","article-title":"Incredible use of plant-derived bioactives as anticancer agents","volume":"15","author":"Kangra","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2024.116827","article-title":"Unlocking the potential of flavonoids: Natural solutions in the fight against colon cancer","volume":"176","author":"Hasibuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nouri, Z., Fakhri, S., Nouri, K., Wallace, C.E., Farzaei, M.H., and Bishayee, A. (2020). Targeting multiple signaling pathways in cancer: The rutin therapeutic approach. Cancers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12082276"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dincheva, I., Badjakov, I., and Galunska, B. (2025). New insights in the research on bioactive compounds from plant origins with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical potential II. Plants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants14040500"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azemi, A.K., Nordin, M.L., Hambali, K.A., Noralidin, N.A., Mokhtar, S.S., and Rasool, A.H.G. (2022). Phytochemical contents and pharmacological potential of Parkia speciosa Hassk. for diabetic vasculopathy: A Review. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11020431"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s10616-018-0267-8","article-title":"Parkia speciosa empty pod extract exerts anti-inflammatory properties by modulating NFkappaB and MAPK pathways in cardiomyocytes exposed to tumor necrosis factor-alpha","volume":"71","author":"Gui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cytotechnology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mustafa, N.H., Jalil, J., Saleh, M.S.M., Zainalabidin, S., Asmadi, A.Y., and Kamisah, Y. (2022). Parkia speciosa Hassk. empty pod extract prevents cardiomyocyte hypertrophy by inhibiting MAPK and calcineurin-NFATC3 signaling pathways. Life, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/life13010043"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siti, H.N., Jalil, J., Asmadi, A.Y., and Kamisah, Y. (2021). Parkia speciosa Hassk. empty pod extract alleviates angiotensin II-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in H9c2 cells by modulating the Ang II\/ROS\/NO Axis and MAPK pathway. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.741623"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e39641","article-title":"Ethanolic extract of Parkia speciosa pods exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in lipopolysaccharide-induced murine macrophages by inhibiting the p38 MAPK pathway","volume":"10","author":"Samrit","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saleh, M.S.M., Jalil, J., Zainalabidin, S., Asmadi, A.Y., Mustafa, N.H., and Kamisah, Y. (2021). Genus Parkia: Phytochemical, medicinal uses, and pharmacological properties. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22020618"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saleh, M.S.M., Jalil, J., Mustafa, N.H., Ramli, F.F., Asmadi, A.Y., and Kamisah, Y. (2021). UPLC-MS-based metabolomics profiling for alpha-glucosidase inhibiting property of Parkia speciosa pods. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11020078"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5836","DOI":"10.1039\/D5FO02116B","article-title":"Gut microbial metabolites of phenolic compounds inhibit colon cancer cell proliferation by triggering apoptosis and cell cycle arrest","volume":"16","author":"Zannini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1875","DOI":"10.2174\/1871520618666180806104902","article-title":"Induction of HT-29 colon cancer cells apoptosis by pyrogallol with growth inhibiting efficacy against drug-resistant Helicobacter pylori","volume":"18","author":"Revathi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anticancer Agents Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2022.109431","article-title":"Design of pH-responsive polymeric nanocarrier for targeted delivery of pyrogallol with enhanced antitumor potential in colon cancer","volume":"731","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.31557\/APJCP.2019.20.9.2645","article-title":"In vivo anti cancer potential of pyrogallol in murine model of colon cancer","volume":"20","author":"Revathi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e99","DOI":"10.1002\/cai2.99","article-title":"Targeting colorectal cancer using dietary flavonols","volume":"3","author":"Dubey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Innov."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2023.175898","article-title":"Targeting beta-catenin signaling for prevention of colorectal cancer\u2014Nutraceutical, drug, and dietary options","volume":"956","author":"McCarty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevOncog.2025059214","article-title":"CD151 and TGF-beta in colon cancer metastasis: Flavonoids and their targeted delivery systems","volume":"30","author":"Malla","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncog."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2491316","DOI":"10.1080\/15592294.2025.2491316","article-title":"An overview of potential of natural compounds to regulate epigenetic modifications in colorectal cancer: A recent update","volume":"20","author":"Roy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70332","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.70332","article-title":"The role of natural products in liver cancer: Focus on angiogenesis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis","volume":"70","author":"Uremis","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9913179","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9913179","article-title":"Rutin: A flavonoid as an effective sensitizer for anticancer therapy; insights into multifaceted mechanisms and applicability for combination therapy","volume":"2021","author":"Satari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suman, I., Jezidzic, A., Dobric, D., and Domitrovic, R. (2025). Differential effects of rutin and its aglycone quercetin on cytotoxicity and chemosensitization of HCT 116 colon cancer cells to anticancer drugs 5-Fluorouracil and doxorubicin. Biology, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology14050527"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20251181","DOI":"10.1515\/biol-2025-1181","article-title":"The potential role of rutin, a flavonoid, in the management of cancer through modulation of cell signaling pathways","volume":"20","author":"Alharbi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Open Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajimehdipoor, H., Tahmasvand, Z., Nejad, F.G., Maresca, M., and Rajabi, S. (2023). Rutin promotes proliferation and orchestrates epithelial-mesenchymal transition and angiogenesis in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15132884"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02148-4","article-title":"Invasion and metastasis in cancer: Molecular insights and therapeutic targets","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2018.12.010","article-title":"Pin1 inhibition reverses the acquired resistance of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells to Regorafenib via the Gli1\/Snail\/E-cadherin pathway","volume":"444","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, W., Yang, L., Li, T., and Zhang, Y. (2019). Cadherin signaling in cancer: Its functions and role as a therapeutic target. Front. Oncol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2019.00989"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mrozik, K.M., Blaschuk, O.W., Cheong, C.M., Zannettino, A.C.W., and Vandyke, K. (2018). N-cadherin in cancer metastasis, its emerging role in haematological malignancies and potential as a therapeutic target in cancer. BMC Cancer, 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-018-4845-0"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jodynis-Liebert, J., and Kujawska, M. (2020). Biphasic dose-response induced by phytochemicals: Experimental evidence. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9030718"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2022.120395","article-title":"Daidzin targets epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition process by attenuating manganese superoxide dismutase expression and PI3K\/Akt\/mTOR activation in tumor cells","volume":"295","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radwan, Z., Kassir, R., Al Feghaly, F., Zaiter, R., Daher, M.A., Roufayel, R., Fajloun, Z., Mawlawi, H., El-Sabban, M., and Dassouki, Z. (2025). Anticancer activity of Jania rubens in HCT-116 cells via EMT suppression, TET downregulation, and ROS-mediated cytotoxicity. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15101361"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osotprasit, S., Suwansa-Ard, S., Cummins, S.F., Wang, T., Samrit, T., Chaiwichien, A., Smith, S.J., Changklungmoa, N., and Kueakhai, P. (2025). Anti-metastatic effects of Plukenetia volubilis (Sacha Inchi) Husk extract via EGFR and EMT pathways and other antitumor effects in colon cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262110514"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osotprasit, S., Suwansa-Ard, S., Cummins, S.F., Wang, T., Samrit, T., Chaiwichien, A., Smith, S.J., Changklungmoa, N., and Kueakhai, P. (2026). Anticancer effects of sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) shell extract on colon cancer cells: Integrated GC-MS, LC-MS, transcriptomic, and proteomic analyses. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27010234"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2586","DOI":"10.1080\/21655979.2021.2019173","article-title":"Effects of wogonin on the growth and metastasis of colon cancer through the Hippo signaling pathway","volume":"13","author":"You","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioengineered"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24091","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-75457-3","article-title":"Oroxylin A suppressed colorectal cancer metastasis by inhibiting the activation of the TGF-beta\/SMAD signal pathway","volume":"14","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Li, X., Zhao, S., Hao, M., Wang, H., Zhou, Z., Xiong, X., Yuan, D., Luo, P., and Wang, L. (2025). Puerarin inhibits proliferation, migration and invasion of colon cancer cells and induces apoptosis via suppression of the PI3K\/AKT signaling pathway. Pharmaceuticals, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18091378"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2025.118279","article-title":"A novel 1,2,4-triazole derivative inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition in metastatic colorectal cancer via beta-catenin suppression","volume":"302","author":"Abdelmegeed","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2604899","DOI":"10.1080\/23723556.2025.2604899","article-title":"SNX1 inhibits human ovarian cancer progression via regulation of the cell cycle, apoptosis and migration","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157665","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2025.157665","article-title":"Bruceine A abrogates pancreatic cancer metastasis by suppressing PFKFB4-glycolysis-EMT axis","volume":"150","author":"Lu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2025.117638","article-title":"Matairesinol regulates TGF-beta-induced EMT and TGF-beta associated crosstalk with Wnt Signaling in PC3 prostate cancer cells: An omics-guided therapeutic insight","volume":"506","author":"Rajadnya","year":"2026","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/4\/2072\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T11:39:42Z","timestamp":1771846782000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/4\/2072"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27042072"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27042072","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]}}}