{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T13:44:38Z","timestamp":1793108678672,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Italian Ministry of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["Ricerca Corrente 2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Ricerca Corrente 2023"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan","award":["linea 2 2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["linea 2 2023"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Osteoimmunology examines the bidirectional interactions between the skeletal and immune systems, focusing on the mechanisms by which immune cells regulate bone homeostasis and how the bone microenvironment modulates immune responses. Chronic inflammation is a major driver of bone loss, and infections of bacterial or viral origin perturb bone remodeling with consequences for host defense. In infected bone tissue, immune cell infiltration and the release of cytokines and soluble mediators alter the activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, thereby promoting bone erosion and structural remodeling. Recent studies highlight how immune dysregulation contributes to the pathogenesis of osteomyelitis and other infection-associated bone disorders, implicating specific inflammatory pathways and cellular interactions as potential therapeutic targets. This review synthesizes current evidence on direct and indirect mechanisms by which infection affects bone, identifies gaps in mechanistic understanding, and discusses implications for diagnosis and intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27062602","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T13:12:24Z","timestamp":1773321144000},"page":"2602","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Bone and Infections: An Osteoimmunological Interplay"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0764-3178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuela","family":"Galliera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2690-7095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Massaccesi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6102-3458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Logoluso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Mangiavini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9341-7187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Peretti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7928-7697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimiliano Marco","family":"Corsi Romanelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Pathology, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20095 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a031245","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a031245","article-title":"Osteoimmunology","volume":"9","author":"Okamoto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. 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