{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T16:31:04Z","timestamp":1773678664342,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773619200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Melanoma is a highly malignant neoplasm of the skin with early metastatic spread and increasing incidence worldwide. Although there are significant therapeutic advances in immunotherapy, especially with the checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1 and CTLA-4, challenges such as treatment-related toxicities, a heterogeneous response to therapy, and drug resistance continue to exist. There are unmet needs for novel therapeutic strategies and\/or approaches to complement the existing treatment options. Potential targets for future melanoma treatment are the gap junction proteins, connexins, which show an altered pattern of regulation during melanoma progression. In this review, we highlight the regulation of gap junctions during melanoma progression and the characterization of gap junctions as tumor suppressors during early-stage tumor development and then the reversion to enhancers of tumor metastasis during late-stage melanoma progression. We provide a comprehensive overview of gap junctions in the skin and how the connexin proteins, which comprise gap junctions, are alternatively regulated in melanoma progression. Connexins are protein channels in the human body that consist of 21 isoforms. These isoforms form gap junctions that provide important intercellular signaling and permeability channels. Each connexin protein consists of four transmembrane domains and a C-terminal tail, which is an important part of its function and regulation. Permeants of gap junctions include signaling molecules such as cyclic AMP and inositol triphosphate which are linked to key cellular behaviors such as proliferation and migration, making them essential for several tumor-related processes. At least ten connexin isoforms are found in normal skin. Connexin 43 (Cx43) is classified as the most prevalent isoform while Connexin 26 (Cx26) has been reported to be more specialized with restricted expression patterns. Cx43 and Cx26 regulate the growth, differentiation, and repair of the epidermis after injury. Evidence suggests that connexins have a stage-related function in melanoma. Loss of connexin expression and gap junctional intercellular communication is linked to tumor suppression and loss of differentiation in early-stage melanoma, while re-expression or overexpression of specific connexins, notably Cx43, may promote metastasis through enhanced tumor\u2013stromal interactions and increased motility in late-stage melanoma. Such opposing actions of connexins support their candidacy as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Understanding the dual-stage related functions of connexins in melanoma development and progression may lead to less cytotoxic and more efficient future therapeutic approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27062705","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T15:21:16Z","timestamp":1773674476000},"page":"2705","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gap Junction\u2013Mediated Communication in Melanoma: From Tumor Progression to Treatment Response"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Juliana","family":"Massoud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u2019Youville University School of Pharmacy, D\u2019Youville University, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u2019Youville University School of Pharmacy, D\u2019Youville University, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Madison","family":"Jensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u2019Youville University School of Pharmacy, D\u2019Youville University, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael C.","family":"Beary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u2019Youville University School of Pharmacy, D\u2019Youville University, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ben","family":"Nafchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u2019Youville University School of Pharmacy, D\u2019Youville University, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Springer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u2019Youville University School of Pharmacy, D\u2019Youville University, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5356-1616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shoshanna N.","family":"Zucker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u2019Youville University School of Pharmacy, D\u2019Youville University, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hoc.2018.09.005","article-title":"Cutaneous Melanoma\u2014A Review in Detection, Staging, and Management","volume":"33","author":"Hartman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hematol. 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