{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T10:54:23Z","timestamp":1774263263099,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":170,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"NIH grant","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K01HL161024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K01HL161024"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"NIH grant","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HL135872"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HL135872"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"NIH grant","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P01HL152961"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P01HL152961"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"NIH grant","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K08HL168310"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K08HL168310"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dendritic cells (DCs) are key sentinels in the lung mucosa that interpret environmental signals to either promote tolerance or trigger inflammation, influencing the development of chronic lung diseases. This review highlights recent mechanistic insights showing that metabolic checkpoints serve as upstream regulators of DC fate and activity: inflammatory stimuli activate HIF-1\u03b1\/mTOR-linked glycolytic pathways that drive maturation, cytokine secretion, antigen presentation, and migration. In contrast, AMPK-related oxidative and lipid metabolism pathways support tolerogenic states that encourage regulatory T-cell responses and inhibit checkpoints like PD-1\/PD-L1. We also present evidence that DC subset specialization (cDC1 vs. cDC2) and their tissue location interact with these metabolic pathways to regulate lymphoid tissue formation, including the development and persistence of tertiary lymphoid structures in chronically inflamed lungs. These ectopic lymphoid tissues enhance local immune responses through DC\u2013stromal interactions and ongoing T follicular helper\u2013B cell communication, contributing to persistent inflammation and tissue remodeling in conditions such as COPD, asthma, pulmonary hypertension, and fibrotic interstitial lung disease. Finally, we discuss the translational potential of targeting this immunometabolic\u2013lymphoid pathway, suggesting that modulating metabolic regulators, migratory circuits, and tolerogenic programs could restore immune balance while maintaining host defense\u2014a promising framework for developing advanced therapies for chronic lung inflammation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27062887","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T09:48:42Z","timestamp":1774259322000},"page":"2887","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Metabolic Checkpoints and Lymphoid Neogenesis in Lung Dendritic Cells: Mechanisms Guiding Tolerance and Chronic Lung Inflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Dara C.","family":"Fonseca-Balladares","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA"},{"name":"Lung Biology Center, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6092-5839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriela O. S.","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Medicina, Disciplina de Pneumologia, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Paulo (UNIFESP), S\u00e3o Paulo 04021-001, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"Nolan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA"},{"name":"Lung Biology Center, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5739-8369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael H.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA"},{"name":"Lung Biology Center, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4993-857X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tha\u00eds C. F.","family":"Menezes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Medicina, Disciplina de Pneumologia, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Paulo (UNIFESP), S\u00e3o Paulo 04021-001, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7541-2585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brian B.","family":"Graham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA"},{"name":"Lung Biology Center, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1064-311X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Mickael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research Laboratories, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1038\/32588","article-title":"Dendritic cells and the control of immunity","volume":"392","author":"Banchereau","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S53","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200737400","article-title":"Dendritic cells: Understanding immunogenicity","volume":"37","author":"Steinman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. 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