{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:01:19Z","timestamp":1785416479398,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776124800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"KCC Research Grant","award":["KCC\/RC\/G\/2223-B06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KCC\/RC\/G\/2223-B06"]}]},{"award":["KCC\/RC\/G\/2223-B06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KCC\/RC\/G\/2223-B06"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05sn8t512","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carcinoma showing thymus-like differentiation (CASTLE) is a rare malignancy arising in the thyroid or neck, with an uncertain cellular origin that complicates both diagnosis and treatment. To better understand its molecular underpinnings and identify potential therapeutic avenues, we conducted integrated whole-exome and transcriptome sequencing on six CASTLE and six thymic carcinoma samples. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) was performed on all 12 samples, while RNA sequencing was successful for 1 CASTLE and 6 thymic carcinoma samples. Our analysis included somatic mutation profiling, mutational signature deconvolution, differential gene expression, and characterization of tumor microenvironment for the cases with available data, with comparisons to genomic data from other thyroid cancers. CASTLE tumors demonstrated a higher median tumor mutational burden than thymic carcinoma and lacked the common BRAF and RAS mutations typically found in thyroid cancers. They harbored alterations in genes such as TRHDE, cilia-associated genes (ANKS6, CFAP46, DNAH6), and Wnt signaling components (TRRAP, BCL9L), as well as mutational signatures suggestive of mismatch repair deficiency and oxidative damage. MSIsensor-pro analysis of the WES data provided support for the potential for mismatch repair deficiency in a subset of CASTLE samples. Exploratory transcriptomic analysis from a single CASTLE case showed downregulation of thyroid follicular markers and an \u201cimmune-hot\u201d, lymphocyte-rich microenvironment, closely resembling that of thymic carcinoma. While these findings require validation in larger cohorts, they support a thymic origin for CASTLE and establish its molecular distinction from follicular-derived thyroid cancers. The immunogenic tumor landscape suggests that immune checkpoint inhibitors, particularly those targeting PD-1\/PD-L1, may be a promising therapeutic strategy, alongside emerging targets for precision oncology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27083501","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T14:24:58Z","timestamp":1776176698000},"page":"3501","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Molecular Landscape of CASTLE: A Rare Thymus-like Head and Neck Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4174-4586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William C.","family":"Cho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9568-8316","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Allen C. S.","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Codex Genetics Ltd., Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wah","family":"Cheuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aldrin K. Y.","family":"Yim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Codex Genetics Ltd., Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James C. H.","family":"Chow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John K. C.","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8476-0239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ka M.","family":"Cheung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01656263","article-title":"Intrathyroidal epithelial thymoma: An entity distinct from squamous cell carcinoma of the thyroid","volume":"9","author":"Miyauchi","year":"1985","journal-title":"World J. 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