{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T16:16:20Z","timestamp":1777392980352,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":226,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776297600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review aggregates the latest reports on the role of environmental factors in the male reproductive system and cancer development. We analyzed environmental pollution-related studies and disorders of mechanisms responsible for defense against the impact of xenobiotics on prostate cancer. We focused on polymorphisms that, when exposed to environmental stressors, might exacerbate an organism\u2019s defense mechanisms against the effects of xenobiotics. It is well known that environmental factors, such as toxic heavy metal pollution, xenobiotic exposure, and undue and differentiated stressors, affect the human reproductive system. There were many studies suggesting an association between these factors and prostate cancer development, but there are still no unambiguous or conclusive results. Investigations of specific marker changes that occur in response to varied environmental stressors are also critical to mutual relations. They focus on the influence of chemical element destabilization and heavy metal pollution on organisms and the environment. Simultaneously, antioxidant enzymatic mechanisms in conditions of anthropogenic impact and the influence of polymorphisms in genes involved in genetic material damage under stress conditions were also studied. This review aims to provide essential data suggesting the role of environmental factors in the initiation and development of carcinogenic processes in the male reproductive system based on prostate cancer cases. It further clarifies this field\u2019s current needs and research directions. It is possible to conclude that there is a relationship between the studied polymorphisms and antioxidant mechanisms, lipoperoxidation, and trace element concentrations in the blood of men with prostate cancer. The results indicate the need to consider environmental factors as necessary in assessing the risks resulting from exposure to oxidative stress in prostate cancer patients. Available data suggest the existence of interactions between exposure to environmental stressors and increased susceptibility to cancers, including male reproductive system cancers. Differentiated chemical elements introduced into the body may play a significant role. Individuals with cancer have a disturbed antioxidant enzyme status, which could be a basis for decreased defense against carcinogenic factors or the effect of disturbed body balance caused by the carcinogenic process. In turn, studies of repair gene polymorphism may indicate disorders of proteins needed for the organism\u2019s defense against xenobiotics. The analysis presented provides data for conclusive population-based studies of the impact of environmental factors on the carcinogenic process in the male reproductive system. This review provides a basis for constructing current needs and the research direction in the discussed field of knowledge. This will allow for a precise study of the explanation of possible multilateral interactions between exposure to varied environmental stressors and the increased incidence of male reproductive system cancer at present.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27083569","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T15:14:12Z","timestamp":1776352452000},"page":"3569","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genetic Polymorphisms and Antioxidant Reactions in Prostate Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1978-6018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Kami\u0144ski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Sk\u0142odowska-Curie St. 9, PL 85-094 Bydgoszcz, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona G\u00f3ra, Prof. Z. Szafran St. 1, PL 65-516 Zielona G\u00f3ra, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joanna","family":"Dr\u00f3\u017cd\u017c-Afelt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Ksi\u0119cia J\u00f3zefa Poniatowskiego St. 12, PL 85-671 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9334-9700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward Jacek","family":"Gorzela\u0144czyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Philosophy, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland"},{"name":"Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Adam Mickiewicz University in Pozna\u0144, 61-614 Pozna\u0144, Poland"},{"name":"Medically Assisted Recovery Association \u201cMAR\u201d, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"},{"name":"Oskar Bielawski Greater Poland Neuropsychiatric Center in Ko\u015bcian, 64-000 Ko\u015bcian, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J\u0119drzej","family":"Baszy\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Sk\u0142odowska-Curie St. 9, PL 85-094 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3951-9005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Halina","family":"Tkaczenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology, Pomeranian University in S\u0142upsk, Arciszewski St. 22 B, PL 76-200 S\u0142upsk, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Hromada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory and Museum of Evolutionary Ecology, Department of Ecology, Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, University of Pre\u0161ov, 17. Novembra 1, SK-081 16 Pre\u0161ov, Slovakia"},{"name":"Department of Nature Protection and Biodiversity, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona G\u00f3ra, Prof. Z. Szafran St. 1, PL 65-516 Zielona G\u00f3ra, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1378-5065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaros\u0142aw","family":"Nuszkiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Biology, Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Kar\u0142owicz St. 24, PL 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4492-4796","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alina","family":"Wo\u017aniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Medical Biology, Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Kar\u0142owicz St. 24, PL 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4669-1092","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalia","family":"Kurhaluk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology, Pomeranian University in S\u0142upsk, Arciszewski St. 22 B, PL 76-200 S\u0142upsk, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (World Health Organization) (2009). Guidelines for the Psychosocially Assisted Pharmacological Treatment of Opioid Dependence, WHO Press. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/43948\/9789241547543_eng.pdf;jses."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"WHO (World Health Organization) (2009). 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