{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T11:13:05Z","timestamp":1778152385714,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776988800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FEDER\/Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion Universidades-Agencia Estatal de Investigacion","award":["ED431C 2025\/08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ED431C 2025\/08"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The redox mechanisms of RAW 264.7 macrophages exposed to 2.45 GHz RF-EMF at subthermal specific absorption rates and to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and\/or the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (CSP) were investigated. To this end, cellular responses (lysosomal and mitochondrial activity, nitric oxide (NO) production, and cell survival\/death) were measured after 6, 24, and 48 h. Selective loss of viability in cells exposed to RF and LPS was observed at 6 h, consistent with early defects in membrane permeability. Lysosomal activity was significantly enhanced in cells treated with RF + LPS. Mitochondrial activity decreased in cells exposed to RF + LPS at 6 h and increased in cells treated with RF + CPS\/LPS. Cell viability decreased greatly in cells treated with LPS and CSP + LPS after 24, particularly after 48 h. Nitrite levels peaked in non-irradiated cells treated with RF + LPS and in CSP + LPS at 24 h and decreased in irradiated cells after 48 h. Irradiation affected selection of the death mode: apoptosis decreased or remained unchanged in cells subjected to any of the treatments, while necrosis increased in cells treated with CPS, LPS, or both for 48 h. The combination of RF-EMF and infectious agents reprogrammed the interaction between mitochondria\/lysosomes\/nitric oxide (NO)\/cell death in macrophages in a time- and stimulus-dependent manner.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27093813","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T11:40:12Z","timestamp":1777981212000},"page":"3813","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Radiofrequency Fields at 2.45 GHz Reprogram Mitochondria\u2013Lysosome Crosstalk and Modulate the Survival\/Death of Macrophages Exposed to LPS and\/or the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3346-6670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa Ana","family":"Sueiro-Benavides","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aquatic One Health Research Center-ARCUS, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"},{"name":"Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Hospital Cl\u00ednico, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6963-515X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Manuel","family":"Leiro-Vidal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aquatic One Health Research Center-ARCUS, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"},{"name":"Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Hospital Cl\u00ednico, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8561-093X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Antonio","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics, Santiago de Compostela Faculty of Physics, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5651-8883","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco Jos\u00e9","family":"Ares-Pena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics, Santiago de Compostela Faculty of Physics, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9322-1229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"L\u00f3pez-Mart\u00edn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Morphological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15702 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.05.048","article-title":"Public exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in everyday microenvironments: An updated systematic review for Europe","volume":"176","author":"Jalilian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. 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