{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T07:35:30Z","timestamp":1791876930087,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":184,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"STI2030-Major Projects","award":["2022ZD0214500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022ZD0214500"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["82471514"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82471514"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["32161143022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32161143022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["82471514"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82471514"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32161143022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32161143022"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuropsychiatric disorders are characterized by complex etiologies, widespread involvement of brain regions, and pronounced clinical heterogeneity, with core pathological mechanisms closely associated with abnormal activity in deep brain structures and their functional networks. Although current pharmacological therapies and conventional neuromodulation techniques have shown therapeutic benefits in certain conditions, they are generally limited by insufficient stimulation depth or the risks associated with invasive procedures. Temporal interference (TI) electrical stimulation has recently emerged as a non-invasive deep neuromodulation technique that generates low-frequency difference-envelope fields through high-frequency carrier signals, thereby enabling relatively precise modulation of deep brain regions while maintaining favorable safety and tolerability. This technique provides a novel technical pathway for precision intervention in neuropsychiatric disorders. In this review, we summarize the principles and technical characteristics of TI stimulation and highlight its recent applications in mood and stress-related disorders, cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative diseases, movement disorders, addiction, and disorders associated with dysregulated neural excitability. We integrate its potential mechanisms across multiple levels, including neural oscillations, deep\u2013cortical network synchronization, reward and motivational circuits, synaptic plasticity and structural remodeling, excitatory-inhibitory balance, and gene and epigenetic regulation. Current evidence suggests that TI stimulation can modulate electrophysiological activity and may engage molecular and network-level processes relevant to functional improvement, although durable clinical benefits remain to be established. Although clinical translation remains challenged by parameter optimization, interindividual variability, and long-term safety evaluation, advances in computational modeling, multimodal neuroimaging, and closed-loop stimulation strategies are expected to facilitate its development. Overall, TI stimulation represents a promising non-invasive deep neuromodulation approach for mechanistic investigation and precision treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27094023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T12:20:25Z","timestamp":1777551625000},"page":"4023","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Temporal Interference Electrical Stimulation for Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Mechanisms, Applications, and Translational Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Yaqi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Key Laboratory of Medical Tissue Regeneration, Henan Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yue","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Brain Science, School of Psychology and Mental Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan 063210, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangyang","family":"Zang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-8107-2978","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaqiong","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Key Laboratory of Medical Tissue Regeneration, Henan Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Key Laboratory of Medical Tissue Regeneration, Henan Medical University, Xinxiang 453003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xueliang","family":"Shang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Brain Science, School of Psychology and Mental Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan 063210, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanxue","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"49","article-title":"The Significance of the Default Mode Network (DMN) in Neurological and Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Review","volume":"89","author":"Mohan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"e58776","article-title":"From Alzheimer\u2019s Disease to Anxiety, Epilepsy to Schizophrenia: A Comprehensive Dive Into Neuro-Psychiatric Disorders","volume":"16","author":"Grezenko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1515\/pubhef-2016-0025","article-title":"Burden and epidemiology of neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"24","author":"Riedel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Public Health Forum"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gde.2020.05.032","article-title":"Functional genomics links genetic origins to pathophysiology in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disease","volume":"65","author":"Wamsley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2014.02.022","article-title":"Conceptualizing neuropsychiatric diseases with multimodal data-driven meta-analyses\u2014The case of behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia","volume":"57","author":"Schroeter","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4179","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhx273","article-title":"Meta-Connectomic Analysis Reveals Commonly Disrupted Functional Architectures in Network Modules and Connectors Across Brain Disorders","volume":"28","author":"Sha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000220","article-title":"Neuroimaging signature of neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"28","author":"Worbe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Zhao, C., Zhao, H., and Qiao, J. (2023). Abnormal functional connectivity of the nucleus accumbens subregions mediates the association between anhedonia and major depressive disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-023-04693-0"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.03.009","article-title":"Thalamocortical dynamics underlying spontaneous transitions in beta power in Parkinsonism","volume":"193","author":"Reis","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-017-0755-9","article-title":"Reward Prediction Errors in Drug Addiction and Parkinson\u2019s Disease: From Neurophysiology to Neuroimaging","volume":"17","author":"Zeighami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liebenow, B., Jones, R., DiMarco, E., Trattner, J.D., Humphries, J., Sands, L.P., Spry, K.P., Johnson, C.K., Farkas, E.B., and Jiang, A. (2022). Computational reinforcement learning, reward (and punishment), and dopamine in psychiatric disorders. Front. Psychiatry, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.886297"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.09.004","article-title":"Neuronal Dynamics and Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Toward a Translational Paradigm for Dysfunctional Large-Scale Networks","volume":"75","author":"Uhlhaas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurot.2024.e00371","article-title":"Neuromodulation: Update on current practice and future developments","volume":"21","author":"Krishna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.12788\/cp.0314","article-title":"Optimal psychiatric treatment: Target the brain and avoid the body","volume":"21","author":"Nasrallah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2023.02.006","article-title":"The Role of Psychotherapy in the Management of Treatment-Resistant Depression","volume":"46","author":"Rogan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02197-0","article-title":"New and emerging approaches to treat psychiatric disorders","volume":"29","author":"Scangos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, W., He, Y., Zhang, W., Sun, Y., Wang, J., Liu, S., and Ming, D. (2023). A novel non-invasive brain stimulation technique: \u201cTemporally interfering electrical stimulation\u201d. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1092539"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.05.024","article-title":"Noninvasive Deep Brain Stimulation via Temporally Interfering Electric Fields","volume":"169","author":"Grossman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.2760","article-title":"Translating Temporal Interference Brain Stimulation to Treat Neurological and Psychiatric Conditions","volume":"75","author":"Grossman","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ivanov, B., Toth, J.E., Mandali, A., Salvati, R., and Arvaneh, M. (2025). Beyond the surface: A review of transcranial temporal interference stimulation for deep brain modulation. Front. Neurol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1661049"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau4915","article-title":"Modulation without surgical intervention","volume":"361","author":"Grossman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3992","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-022-01677-6","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in the treatment of severe alcohol use disorder: A phase I pilot trial","volume":"27","author":"Davidson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0368-20.2020","article-title":"Limited Sensitivity of Hippocampal Synaptic Function or Network Oscillations to Unmodulated Kilohertz Electric Fields","volume":"7","author":"Esmaeilpour","year":"2020","journal-title":"ENeuro"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2025.07.006","article-title":"On the need of individually optimizing temporal interference stimulation of human brains due to inter-individual variability","volume":"18","author":"Brahma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e29482","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of noninvasive deep temporal interference stimulation: A simulation and experimental study","volume":"10","author":"Mojiri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2019.2919912","article-title":"STIMULUS: Noninvasive Dynamic Patterns of Neurostimulation Using Spatio-Temporal Interference","volume":"67","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.129","article-title":"The Reward Circuit: Linking Primate Anatomy and Human Imaging","volume":"35","author":"Haber","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2022.105337","article-title":"Multipair transcranial temporal interference stimulation for improved focalized stimulation of deep brain regions: A simulation study","volume":"143","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11730","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-68660-5","article-title":"Individually customized transcranial temporal interference stimulation for focused modulation of deep brain structures: A simulation study with different head models","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70031","DOI":"10.1002\/wics.70031","article-title":"Temporal Interference Stimulation: Mechanisms, Optimization, Validation, and Clinical Prospects\u2014A Comprehensive Review","volume":"17","author":"Soroushi","year":"2025","journal-title":"WIREs Comput. Stat."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.116124","article-title":"Prospects for transcranial temporal interference stimulation in humans: A computational study","volume":"202","author":"Rampersad","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1994","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-023-01456-8","article-title":"Non-invasive temporal interference electrical stimulation of the human hippocampus","volume":"26","author":"Violante","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39589","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5c15238","article-title":"Precision at Deep Brain: Noninvasive Temporal Interference Stimulation","volume":"19","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2024.120581","article-title":"Temporal interference stimulation targets deep primate brain","volume":"291","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.30134","article-title":"Noninvasive Temporal Interference Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus in Parkinson\u2019s Disease Reduces Beta Activity","volume":"40","author":"Missey","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cels.2020.10.004","article-title":"Biophysics of Temporal Interference Stimulation","volume":"11","author":"Mirzakhalili","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2020.11.007","article-title":"Temporal interference stimulation targets deep brain regions by modulating neural oscillations","volume":"14","author":"Esmaeilpour","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-024-06728-y","article-title":"Cell-specific effects of temporal interference stimulation on cortical function","volume":"7","author":"Goswami","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2025.10.023","article-title":"Human Applications of Transcranial Temporal Interference Stimulation: A Systematic Review","volume":"18","author":"Demchenko","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2204433119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2204433119","article-title":"Multiscale neural signatures of major depressive, anxiety, and stress-related disorders","volume":"119","author":"Zhukovsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e006303","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2021-006303","article-title":"Global burden of post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression in countries affected by war between 1989 and 2019: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Hoppen","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2019.19101064","article-title":"Cortico-Limbic Interactions Mediate Adaptive and Maladaptive Responses Relevant to Psychopathology","volume":"176","author":"Kovner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.01.058","article-title":"The role of the nucleus accumbens and rostral anterior cingulate cortex in anhedonia: Integration of resting EEG, fMRI, and volumetric techniques","volume":"46","author":"Wacker","year":"2009","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2004.12.006","article-title":"Individual Differences in Trait Anxiety Predict the Response of the Basolateral Amygdala to Unconsciously Processed Fearful Faces","volume":"44","author":"Etkin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2007.07030504","article-title":"Functional Neuroimaging of Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis of Emotional Processing in PTSD, Social Anxiety Disorder, and Specific Phobia","volume":"164","author":"Etkin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6099","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-025-03292-7","article-title":"Transcranial temporal interference stimulation for treating bipolar disorder with depressive episodes: A feasibility Study","volume":"30","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2013.05.008","article-title":"Amygdala Deep Brain Stimulation Is Superior to Paroxetine Treatment in a Rat Model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder","volume":"6","author":"Stidd","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6215-15-356","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the basolateral amygdala for treatment-refractory combat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Study protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial with blinded, staggered onset of stimulation","volume":"15","author":"Koek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-023-01682-5","article-title":"Potential applications of temporal interference deep brain stimulation for the treatment of transdiagnostic conditions in psychiatry","volume":"49","author":"Fani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70160","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.70160","article-title":"Temporal Interference Stimulation Boosts Working Memory Performance in the Frontoparietal Network","volume":"46","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-024-01901-z","article-title":"Non-invasive stimulation of the human striatum disrupts reinforcement learning of motor skills","volume":"8","author":"Vassiliadis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-021-01155-7","article-title":"Prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and threat processing: Implications for PTSD","volume":"47","author":"Kredlow","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demchenko, I., Rampersad, S., Datta, A., Horn, A., Churchill, N.W., Kennedy, S.H., Krishnan, S., Rueda, A., Schweizer, T.A., and Griffiths, J.D. (2024). Target engagement of the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex with transcranial temporal interference stimulation in major depressive disorder: A protocol for a randomized sham-controlled trial. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1390250"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-181195","article-title":"Changes in Theta but not Alpha Modulation Are Associated with Impairment in Working Memory in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment","volume":"68","author":"Goodman","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10222","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2250-06.2006","article-title":"Alterations in Memory Networks in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: An Independent Component Analysis","volume":"26","author":"Celone","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2006.09.020","article-title":"Neural Synchrony in Brain Disorders: Relevance for Cognitive Dysfunctions and Pathophysiology","volume":"52","author":"Uhlhaas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"100803","article-title":"Temporal interference stimulation for human brain: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Innovation"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, L., Li, S., Huang, L., Li, L., Zhou, P., Lu, Z., Liu, T., and Wang, J. (SSRN, 2024). Non-Invasive Temporal Interference Electrical Stimulation Modulates Neurotransmitter Release and Alleviate Neuronal Abnormal Discharge in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, SSRN, preprint.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4988809"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"7524066","article-title":"The Origin of Abnormal Beta Oscillations in the Parkinsonian Corticobasal Ganglia Circuits","volume":"2022","author":"Asadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.2741\/4282","article-title":"Neuronal Oscillations in Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"19","author":"Witcher","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Biosci. (Landmark Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s11071-011-0223-z","article-title":"Intermittent neural synchronization in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"68","author":"Rubchinsky","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nonlinear Dyn."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"5124328","article-title":"Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: New and Emerging Targets for Refractory Motor and Nonmotor Symptoms","volume":"2017","author":"Anderson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2024.10.012","article-title":"Transcranial temporal interference subthalamic stimulation for treating motor symptoms in Parkinson\u2019s disease: A pilot study","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.29967","article-title":"Transcranial Temporal Interference Stimulation of the Right Globus Pallidus in Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"40","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/s41531-024-00804-0","article-title":"A review of temporal interference, nanoparticles, ultrasound, gene therapy, and designer receptors for Parkinson disease","volume":"10","author":"Currie","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(16)00104-8","article-title":"Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis","volume":"3","author":"Koob","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S24","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-44462008005000003","article-title":"The Neurobiology of Impulse Control Disorders","volume":"30","author":"Williams","year":"2008","journal-title":"Braz. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3119","article-title":"Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex in addiction: Neuroimaging findings and clinical implications","volume":"12","author":"Goldstein","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.12.032","article-title":"Pathway-Specific Striatal Substrates for Habitual Behavior","volume":"89","author":"Ade","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.07.046","article-title":"The Brain on Drugs: From Reward to Addiction","volume":"162","author":"Volkow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keramati, M., and Gutkin, B. (2013). Imbalanced Decision Hierarchy in Addicts Emerging from Drug-Hijacked Dopamine Spiraling Circuit. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0061489"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.2174\/1874473710902020195","article-title":"Phasic Dopamine Release in Appetitive Behaviors and Drug Addiction","volume":"2","author":"Wanat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Abus. Rev."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2011.86","article-title":"Decreased dopamine activity predicts relapse in methamphetamine abusers","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21040","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-71841-1","article-title":"Non-invasive temporal interference brain stimulation reduces preference on morphine-induced conditioned place preference in rats","volume":"14","author":"Mojiri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McKendrick, G., and Graziane, N.M. (2020). Drug-Induced Conditioned Place Preference and Its Practical Use in Substance Use Disorder Research. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2020.582147"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2013.05.002","article-title":"Using conditioned place preference to identify relapse prevention medications","volume":"37","author":"Napier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2023.09.012","article-title":"Effect of temporal interference electrical stimulation on phasic dopamine release in the striatum","volume":"16","author":"Kwak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-023-01457-7","article-title":"Noninvasive theta-burst stimulation of the human striatum enhances striatal activity and motor skill learning","volume":"26","author":"Wessel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-020-01604-x","article-title":"Restoration of breathing after opioid overdose and spinal cord injury using temporal interference stimulation","volume":"4","author":"Sunshine","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2024.02.014","article-title":"Temporally interfering electric fields brain stimulation in primary motor cortex of mice promotes motor skill through enhancing neuroplasticity","volume":"17","author":"Qi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"00469580231221286","article-title":"Transcranial Electrical Neurostimulation as a Potential Addiction Treatment","volume":"60","author":"Brown","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inq. J. Health Care Organ. Provis. Financ."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bozzi, Y., Casarosa, S., and Caleo, M. (2012). Epilepsy as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder. Front. Psychiatry, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2012.00019"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17651","article-title":"Excitatory\/inhibitory balance in epilepsies and neurodevelopmental disorders: Depolarizing \u03b3-aminobutyric acid as a common mechanism","volume":"64","author":"Schubert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12062","article-title":"Interneuronopathies and their role in early life epilepsies and neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"2","author":"Katsarou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2008.09.017","article-title":"Temporal lobe epilepsy: Where do the seizures really begin?","volume":"14","author":"Bertram","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fcaf106","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcaf106","article-title":"Modulating limbic circuits in temporal lobe epilepsy: Impacts on seizures, memory, mood and sleep","volume":"7","author":"Kremen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2017.00086","article-title":"From Structure to Behavior in Basolateral Amygdala-Hippocampus Circuits","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neural Circuits"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.06.016","article-title":"BLA to vHPC Inputs Modulate Anxiety-Related Behaviors","volume":"79","author":"Beyeler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11935","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms11935","article-title":"Opposite monosynaptic scaling of BLP\u2013vCA1 inputs governs hopefulness- and helplessness-modulated spatial learning and memory","volume":"7","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2023.120766","article-title":"Drug-resistant epilepsy: Definition, pathophysiology, and management","volume":"452","author":"Mesraoua","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2009.02397.x","article-title":"Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: Consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"51","author":"Kwan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1111\/ane.13696","article-title":"Neuromodulation in drug-resistant epilepsy: A review of current knowledge","volume":"146","author":"Xue","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.14336\/AD.2021.0211","article-title":"Neuromodulation in Drug Resistant Epilepsy","volume":"12","author":"Rincon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Missey, F., Rusina, E., Acerbo, E., Botzanowski, B., Tr\u00e9buchon, A., Bartolomei, F., Jirsa, V., Carron, R., and Williamson, A. (2021). Orientation of Temporal Interference for Non-invasive Deep Brain Stimulation in Epilepsy. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.633988"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acerbo, E., Jegou, A., Luff, C., Dzialecka, P., Botzanowski, B., Missey, F., Ngom, I., Lagarde, S., Bartolomei, F., and Cassara, A. (2022). Focal non-invasive deep-brain stimulation with temporal interference for the suppression of epileptic biomarkers. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.945221"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13298","article-title":"Is SEEG safe? A systematic review and meta-analysis of stereo-electroencephalography\u2013related complications","volume":"57","author":"Mullin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2025.11.008","article-title":"Non-invasive temporal interference stimulation of the hippocampus suppresses epileptic biomarkers in patients with Epilepsy: Biophysical differences between kilohertz and amplitude modulated stimulation","volume":"19","author":"Missey","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-026-00564-1","article-title":"Temporal interference stimulation devices: A comprehensive review of hardware design and implementation","volume":"16","author":"Kim","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Lett."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, R., Xia, X., Zhang, W., Lu, Z., Wu, Q., Cui, J., Song, H., Fan, C., Chen, X., and Zha, R. (2022). High Gamma and Beta Temporal Interference Stimulation in the Human Motor Cortex Improves Motor Functions. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.800436"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22536","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.22536","article-title":"Recommendations for the Safe Application of Temporal Interference Stimulation in the Human Brain Part II: Biophysics, Dosimetry, and Safety Recommendations","volume":"46","author":"Newton","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioelectromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-024-01336-7","article-title":"Repetitive temporal interference stimulation improves jump performance but not the postural stability in young healthy males: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"21","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Zhou, Z., Zhou, J., Qian, Z., L\u00fc, J., Li, L., and Liu, Y. (2022). Temporal interference stimulation targeting right frontoparietal areas enhances working memory in healthy individuals. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.918470"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.13767","article-title":"Functional integration across oscillation frequencies by cross-frequency phase synchronization","volume":"48","author":"Palva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"9","article-title":"Opportunities and Challenges for Psychiatry in the Connectomic Era","volume":"2","author":"Fornito","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goodman, M.S., Kumar, S., Zomorrodi, R., Ghazala, Z., Cheam, A.S.M., Barr, M.S., Daskalakis, Z.J., Blumberger, D.M., Fischer, C., and Flint, A. (2018). Theta-Gamma Coupling and Working Memory in Alzheimer\u2019s Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment. Front. Aging Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2018.00101"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2015.0071","article-title":"Large-Scale Network Dysfunction in Major Depressive Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Resting-State Functional Connectivity","volume":"72","author":"Kaiser","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kohno, M., Dennis, L.E., McCready, H., and Hoffman, W.F. (2017). Executive Control and Striatal Resting-State Network Interact with Risk Factors to Influence Treatment Outcomes in Alcohol-Use Disorder. Front. Psychiatry, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00182"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2023.148457","article-title":"Promising neurostimulation routes for targeting the hippocampus to improve episodic memory: A review","volume":"1815","author":"Arulchelvan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, L., Nan, J., and Lan, Y. (2020). The Nucleus Accumbens: A Common Target in the Comorbidity of Depression and Addiction. Front. Neural Circuits, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2020.00037"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-024-00990-8","article-title":"Non-invasive deep brain stimulation: Interventional targeting of deep brain areas in neurological disorders","volume":"20","author":"Hummel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3381","article-title":"The brain reward circuitry in mood disorders","volume":"14","author":"Russo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3934\/Neuroscience.2017.1.52","article-title":"Nucleus Accumbens and Its Role in Reward and Emotional Circuitry: A Potential Hot Mess in Substance Use and Emotional Disorders","volume":"4","author":"Pavuluri","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIMS Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.27111","article-title":"A deeply superficial brain stimulation","volume":"32","author":"Bouthour","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryan, J.S., Botzanowski, B., Karkare, M., Kubert, J.R., Liu, S., Betters, S.A., Williamson, A., Fani, N., and Treadway, M.T. (bioRxiv, 2024). Assessing the Distinct Contributions of Rostral and Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex to Cognitive Control Using Temporal Interference Brain Stimulation, bioRxiv, preprint.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.06.06.597826"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"051001","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ae0524","article-title":"Systematic review of experimental studies in humans on transcranial temporal interference stimulation","volume":"22","author":"Mansourinezhad","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yatsuda, K., Yu, W., and Gomez-Tames, J. (2024). Population-level insights into temporal interference for focused deep brain neuromodulation. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1308549"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-022-01370-w","article-title":"Synaptic plasticity and mental health: Methods, challenges and opportunities","volume":"48","author":"Appelbaum","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3314","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-023-03721-0","article-title":"Noninvasive Deep Brain Stimulation via Temporal Interference Electric Fields Enhanced Motor Performance of Mice and Its Neuroplasticity Mechanisms","volume":"61","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.111217","article-title":"Trafficking of NMDA receptors is essential for hippocampal synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation","volume":"40","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, J., Du, Z., Piao, Y., Yu, X., Huang, K., Tang, Y., Wei, P., and Wang, P. (2025). Advances in the application of temporal interference stimulation: A scoping review. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1536906"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2004.02.086","article-title":"Temporal dynamics of NMDA receptor-induced changes in spine morphology and AMPA receptor recruitment to spines","volume":"316","author":"Lin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2018.16","article-title":"Dendritic structural plasticity and neuropsychiatric disease","volume":"19","author":"Forrest","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-010-9639-0","article-title":"Electrical Stimulation Promotes BDNF Expression in Spinal Cord Neurons Through Ca2+- and Erk-Dependent Signaling Pathways","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sveva, V., Mancuso, M., Cruciani, A., Casula, E.P., Leodori, G., Selvaggi, S.A., Bologna, M., Di Lazzaro, V., Latorre, A., and Rocchi, L. (2025). Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques: A Systematic Review on the Implications for the Treatment of Neurological Disorders. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14241996"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.09.027","article-title":"How Inhibition Shapes Cortical Activity","volume":"72","author":"Isaacson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-019-0426-0","article-title":"Excitation-inhibition balance as a framework for investigating mechanisms in neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"24","author":"Sohal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-092523-110001","article-title":"Keeping Your Brain in Balance: Homeostatic Regulation of Network Function","volume":"47","author":"Wen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-025-01359-7","article-title":"Non-invasive Modulation of Deep Brain Nuclei by Temporal Interference Stimulation","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-024-01306-y","article-title":"Sonic Hedgehog Mediates High Frequency-Dependent Deep Brain Stimulation for the Correction of Motor Deficits in a Parkinson\u2019s Disease Model","volume":"40","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsui, C.T., Lal, P., Fox, K.V.R., Churchward, M.A., and Todd, K.G. (2022). The effects of electrical stimulation on glial cell behaviour. BMC Biomed. Eng., 4.","DOI":"10.1186\/s42490-022-00064-0"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-024-01258-3","article-title":"From Physiology to Pathology of Astrocytes: Highlighting Their Potential as Therapeutic Targets for CNS Injury","volume":"41","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5880","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.14969","article-title":"The effects of microglia- and astrocyte-derived factors on neurogenesis in health and disease","volume":"54","author":"Araki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00049.2005","article-title":"Astrocyte Control of Synaptic Transmission and Neurovascular Coupling","volume":"86","author":"Haydon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, N.P., Kushwah, N., Dhawan, V., Zheng, X.S., and Cui, X.T. (2022). Effects of central nervous system electrical stimulation on non-neuronal cells. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.967491"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1928","article-title":"Purinergic signalling in neuron\u2013glia interactions","volume":"7","author":"Fields","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-024-01206-1","article-title":"Quiescent Adult Neural Stem Cells: Developmental Origin and Regulatory Mechanisms","volume":"40","author":"Meng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.05.001","article-title":"Adult Neurogenesis in the Mammalian Brain: Significant Answers and Significant Questions","volume":"70","author":"Ming","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1969","article-title":"Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in depression","volume":"10","author":"Sahay","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2025.108581","article-title":"Hippocampal transcranial temporal interference stimulation reduced craving in methamphetamine use disorder","volume":"174","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.10.013","article-title":"Activity-Regulated Transcription: Bridging the Gap between Neural Activity and Behavior","volume":"100","author":"Yap","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3111","article-title":"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction","volume":"12","author":"Robison","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2016.05.010","article-title":"Update of neurotrophic factors in neurobiology of addiction and future directions","volume":"97","author":"Koskela","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2010.12.008","article-title":"Cognitive neuroepigenetics: A role for epigenetic mechanisms in learning and memory","volume":"96","author":"Day","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11451","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1758-09.2009","article-title":"Antidepressant Actions of Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors","volume":"29","author":"Covington","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1659","article-title":"Sustained hippocampal chromatin regulation in a mouse model of depression and antidepressant action","volume":"9","author":"Tsankova","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-020-00435-y","article-title":"Neuroinflammation and Microglial Activation in Alzheimer Disease: Where Do We Go from Here?","volume":"17","author":"Leng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toader, C., Serban, M., Munteanu, O., Covache-Busuioc, R.A., Enyedi, M., Ciurea, A.V., and Tataru, C.P. (2025). From Synaptic Plasticity to Neurodegeneration: Bdnf as a Transformative Target in Medicine. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26094271"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s12017-025-08857-x","article-title":"Unlocking Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: The Role of Bdnf Signaling in Neuropathology and Treatment","volume":"27","author":"Alqahtani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuromol. Med."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751719","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2026.1751719","article-title":"Safety Assessment of Temporal Interference Stimulation","volume":"20","author":"Hou","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200075","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202200075","article-title":"Noninvasive Stimulation of Peripheral Nerves Using Temporally-Interfering Electrical Fields","volume":"11","author":"Botzanowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.10.006","article-title":"Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Basic and Clinical Neuroscience: A Comprehensive Review of Fundamental Principles and Novel Insights","volume":"83","author":"Amengual","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(23)00026-3","article-title":"Effects of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex on Symptom Domains in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review and Cross-Diagnostic Meta-Analysis","volume":"10","author":"Kan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1097\/YCT.0000000000000386","article-title":"Effects of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on the Cognitive Control of Emotion: Potential Antidepressant Mechanisms","volume":"33","author":"Lantrip","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. ECT"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2013.11.038","article-title":"Coil Design Considerations for Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation","volume":"125","author":"Deng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2009.08.016","article-title":"Safety, Ethical Considerations, and Application Guidelines for the Use of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Clinical Practice and Research","volume":"120","author":"Rossi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.06.015","article-title":"Basic and Functional Effects of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES)\u2014An Introduction","volume":"85","author":"Yavari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.11.001","article-title":"Electrical Brain Stimulation (Tes) Improves Learning More Than Performance: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"84","author":"Simonsmeier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1159\/000501227","article-title":"Application of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Psychiatry","volume":"79","author":"Bajbouj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.focus.20210020","article-title":"Transcranial Electrical Stimulation for Psychiatric Disorders in Adults: A Primer","volume":"20","author":"Cho","year":"2022","journal-title":"Focus"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.01.033","article-title":"Determinants of the Electric Field During Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation","volume":"109","author":"Opitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31236","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31236","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Structure of Intracranial Electric Fields Induced by Transcranial Electric Stimulation in Humans and Nonhuman Primates","volume":"6","author":"Opitz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-020-00426-z","article-title":"Technology of Deep Brain Stimulation: Current Status and Future Directions","volume":"17","author":"Krauss","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-018-0128-2","article-title":"Deep Brain Stimulation: Current Challenges and Future Directions","volume":"15","author":"Lozano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00281.2015","article-title":"Mechanisms of Deep Brain Stimulation","volume":"115","author":"Herrington","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2017.07.003","article-title":"Systematic Review of Hardware-Related Complications of Deep Brain Stimulation: Do New Indications Pose an Increased Risk?","volume":"10","author":"Jitkritsadakul","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2022.10.034","article-title":"Complications of Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson Disease and Relationship between Micro-Electrode Tracks and Hemorrhage: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"171","author":"Rasiah","year":"2023","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1002\/mdc3.12592","article-title":"Challenges in Pd Patient Management after Dbs: A Pragmatic Review","volume":"5","author":"Rossi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mov. Disord. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.3171\/2023.7.JNS23277","article-title":"Healthcare Disparities in Deep Brain Stimulation Access and Utilization: A Systematic Review","volume":"140","author":"Deshpande","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piao, Y., Ma, R., Weng, Y., Fan, C., Xia, X., Zhang, W., Zeng, G.Q., Wang, Y., Lu, Z., and Cui, J. (2022). Safety Evaluation of Employing Temporal Interference Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation in Human Studies. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12091194"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-025-01753-2","article-title":"A Panoramic Review of Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Neuromodulation: From Basic Research to Clinical Applications","volume":"22","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurom.2024.07.008","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of Low-Intensity Focused Ultrasound Parameters and Applications in Neurologic and Psychiatric Disorders","volume":"28","author":"Cox","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y.G., Kim, S.E., Lee, J., Hwang, S., Yoo, S.S., and Lee, H.W. (2022). Neuromodulation Using Transcranial Focused Ultrasound on the Bilateral Medial Prefrontal Cortex. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11133809"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463038","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1463038","article-title":"Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Precise Neuromodulation: A Review of Focal Size Regulation, Treatment Efficiency and Mechanisms","volume":"18","author":"Jin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749162","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.749162","article-title":"Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Neuromodulation: A Review of the Excitatory and Inhibitory Effects on Brain Activity in Human and Animals","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12474","article-title":"Cost-Effectiveness of Deep Brain Stimulation for Advanced Parkinson\u2019s Disease in the United States","volume":"19","author":"Pietzsch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-017-0054-4","article-title":"Studying and Modifying Brain Function with Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation","volume":"21","author":"Nitsche","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2025.121641","article-title":"Anatomically Mediated Variability of Hippocampal Electric Fields in Temporal Interference Stimulation: A Predictive Modeling Approach","volume":"325","author":"Meng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yatsuda, K., Fukunaga, M., Yu, W., and Gomez-Tames, J. (2025). Impact of Brain Anisotropy on Transcranial Temporal Interference Stimulation: Numerical Analysis toward Reliable Montage Optimization. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-026-00575-y"},{"key":"ref_179","unstructured":"Vassiliadis, P., Beanato, E., Wessel, M.J., and Hummel, F.C. (2025). Temporal Interference Stimulation for Deep Brain Neuromodulation in Humans. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2025.04.010","article-title":"Task-Related Changes in Resting State Connectivity Are Affected by Temporal Interference (Ti) Stimulation","volume":"18","author":"Kurtin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, H.C., Wu, Y.H., and Ker, M.D. (Neuromodulation, 2025). Enhancing Deep Brain Entrainment with Pulse Wave Temporal Interference Stimulation: A Comparative Study of Carrier Waveforms, Neuromodulation, in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurom.2025.10.061"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22542","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.22542","article-title":"Recommendations for the Safe Application of Temporal Interference Stimulation in the Human Brain Part I: Principles of Electrical Neuromodulation and Adverse Effects","volume":"46","author":"Newton","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioelectromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2024.07.014","article-title":"Temporal Interference Electrical Neurostimulation at 20 Hz Beat Frequency Leads to Increased Fmri Bold Activation in Orbitofrontal Cortex in Humans","volume":"17","author":"Modak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056018","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac89b3","article-title":"Non-Invasive Stimulation with Temporal Interference: Optimization of the Electric Field Deep in the Brain with the Use of a Genetic Algorithm","volume":"19","author":"Stoupis","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/9\/4023\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T04:13:35Z","timestamp":1778559215000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/9\/4023"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"references-count":184,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27094023"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27094023","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]}}}