{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T18:01:56Z","timestamp":1787508116465,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779840000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FAR-FOMO 2023"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oxidative stress causes brain damage contributing to neurodegenerative and vascular diseases. In Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD), elevated oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage are closely linked to misfolded protein accumulation. ROS also plays a major role in ischemic brain injury, particularly during reperfusion, impairing the blood\u2013brain barrier and highlighting the association between vascular pathology and AD. To investigate perturbations in brain cells occurring in mixed dementia (AD combined with vascular dementia components), we used a triple culture system comprising neurons, astrocytes, and microglia and induced neuronal injury by combining LPS and H2O2 exposures. Cell viability assays revealed that neuronal death occurred mainly through apoptosis and DNA damage. In neurons and astrocytes exposed to LPS+H2O2, the expression of NADPH oxidase isoform 2, a major source of ROS, increased, along with FOXO3 and SOD2, a key mitochondrial ROS scavenger. Indeed, these changes were accompanied by altered mitochondrial morphology and integrity, as well as reduced neurite extension and thickness. The treatment with extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from amniotic fluid stem cells was tested due to their rich content of antioxidant molecules. Interestingly, EVs reversed the negative effects of LPS+H2O2, suggesting the protective role against neuronal injury in vitro may be mediated by the EV-cargo.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27114834","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T14:36:56Z","timestamp":1779892616000},"page":"4834","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Ameliorate the Neuron Mitochondrial Damage Induced by ROS-, LPS-Exposure: In Vitro Model of Neuron, Microglia, and Astrocyte Triple Co-Culture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3997-6433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Malenchini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6023-5846","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Beretti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martina","family":"Gatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy"},{"name":"Cellular Signalling Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Science, University of Bologna, 40125 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2020-9111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma","family":"Bertucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Mothers, Children and Adults, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41124 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2933-0927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Del Toro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tullia","family":"Maraldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9793","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.118737","article-title":"The pathophysiology of mixed Alzheimer\u2019s disease and vascular dementia","volume":"15","author":"Sarhan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beretti, F., Malenchini, M., Gatti, M., and Maraldi, T. 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