{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T02:52:49Z","timestamp":1789872769779,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":183,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Life is a self-organizing and self-sustaining process that involves energy transformation, primarily regulated by the brain. The brain\u2019s main structure consists of terminally differentiated, postmitotic, non-replaceable cells, whose proper functioning and longevity depend solely on glucose-based energy metabolism. Glucose serves as the primary substrate for cellular respiration and anaerobic processes, which are essential for maintaining proper neuronal function, homeostasis, and cell repair. Research indicates that brain aging and neurodegenerative changes result from an age-related decline in glucose metabolism, largely due to a deficiency in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). This deficiency is particularly harmful to brain structures that contain neurons with the highest energy demands. The first signs of brain aging typically appear in the hypothalamus, as well as in the GABAergic and glutamatergic structures of the cerebral cortex and subcortical nuclei. Early symptoms of senile brain changes often manifest as systemic metabolic disorders like insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. These are accompanied by alterations in brain energy metabolism, leading to neurological and psychiatric disorders that correspond to the affected brain regions. Over time, these changes gradually impact the brain\u2019s regions with the highest energy consumption. Current clinical studies suggest that early supplementation with NAD precursors may help slow the aging and neurodegeneration processes. However, this protective therapy appears to be less effective once the disease is fully developed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27125190","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T00:43:54Z","timestamp":1780965834000},"page":"5190","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Metabolic Brain Disorders: Prodromes, Symptoms, and Syndromes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1073-9629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janusz Wies\u0142aw","family":"B\u0142aszczyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Behavior, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.12740\/PP\/65751","article-title":"A Revision of Antoni K\u0119pi\u0144ski\u2019s Concept of Information Metabolism","volume":"52","author":"Ceklarz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2019.12.004","article-title":"Thalamic reticular nucleus in the thalamocortical loop","volume":"156","author":"Takata","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tereshchenko, S., Kasparov, E., Zobova, S., Smolnikova, M., Evert, L., Semenova, N., Zaitseva, O., Shubina, M., Gorbacheva, N., and Lapteva, L. (2021). Oxytocin Pathway Gene (CD38, OXTR) Variants Are Not Related to Psychosocial Characteristics Defined by Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in Adolescents: A Field School-Based Study. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.714093"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2024.06.023","article-title":"Thalamic cells and pathway for social memory processing and storage","volume":"112","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2016.07.011","article-title":"Implications for the thalamic reticular nucleus in impaired attention and sleep in schizophrenia","volume":"180","author":"Young","year":"2017","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.4249\/scholarpedia.1583","article-title":"Thalamus","volume":"1","author":"Sherman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Scholarpedia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2025.115292","article-title":"Higher-order thalamic input to cortex selectively conveys state information","volume":"44","author":"Neske","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bennett, M. (2020). An Attempt at a Unified Theory of the Neocortical Microcircuit in Sensory Cortex. Front. Neural Circuits, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2020.00040"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6016","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-26268-x","article-title":"The ascending arousal system shapes neural dynamics to mediate awareness of cognitive states","volume":"12","author":"Munn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbq142","article-title":"The thalamic reticular nucleus and schizophrenia","volume":"37","author":"Ferrarelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2772","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10722-y","article-title":"Neuronal representation of environmental boundaries in egocentric coordinates","volume":"10","author":"Hinman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.07.012","article-title":"Egocentric and allocentric spatial reference frames in aging: A systematic review","volume":"80","author":"Colombo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borland, J.M. (2025). A review of the effects of different types of social behaviors on the recruitment of neuropeptides and neurotransmitters in the nucleus accumbens. Front. Neuroendocr., 77.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2025.101175"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2413","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.313030","article-title":"The antiaging role of oxytocin","volume":"16","author":"Benameur","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"341","article-title":"Are Fear and Anxiety Truly Distinct?","volume":"2","author":"Fletcher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry Glob. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2022.105203","article-title":"Oxytocin receptor behavioral effects and cell types in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis","volume":"143","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uvn\u00e4s-Moberg, K., Handlin, L., and Petersson, M. (2015). Self-soothing behaviors with particular reference to oxytocin release induced by non-noxious sensory stimulation. Front. Psychol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.01529"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2009.07.006","article-title":"What is the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis?","volume":"33","author":"Dumont","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.1","article-title":"Overshadowed by the amygdala: The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis emerges as key to psychiatric disorders","volume":"21","author":"Lebow","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tyng, C.M., Amin, H.U., Saad, M.N.M., and Malik, A.S. (2017). The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory. Front. Psychol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01454"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.10.009","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of fear learning and memory","volume":"147","author":"Johansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-815134-1.00003-9","article-title":"Neuronal diversity of the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis","volume":"26","author":"Beyeler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Handb. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-024-00985-6","article-title":"AMPK targets PDZD8 to trigger carbon source shift from glucose to glutamine","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ENEURO.0315-21.2021","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0315-21.2021","article-title":"Putting Together Pieces of the Lateral Septum: Multifaceted Functions and Its Neural Pathways","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"eNeuro"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9782","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3269-05.2005","article-title":"Complementary roles of cholecystokinin- and parvalbumin-expressing GABAergic neurons in hippocampal network oscillations","volume":"25","author":"Klausberger","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herculano-Houzel, S. (2011). Scaling of brain metabolism with a fixed energy budget per neuron: Implications for neuronal activity, plasticity and evolution. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017514"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-020-0778-9","article-title":"Parvalbumin interneuron vulnerability and brain disorders","volume":"46","author":"Ruden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S173","DOI":"10.33549\/physiolres.935005","article-title":"Parvalbumin\u2014Positive Neurons in the Neocortex: A Review","volume":"72","author":"Druga","year":"2023","journal-title":"Physiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-025-03541-x","article-title":"The role of dorsomedial striatum and parvalbumin interneurons in schizophrenia-related cognitive deficits: Insights from disrupted strategic decision-making in Akt1 heterozygous mice","volume":"15","author":"Chang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1177\/003685049908200304","article-title":"The highly integrated dialogue between neurons and astrocytes in brain function","volume":"82","author":"Vesce","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sci. Prog."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1202529","article-title":"Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development","volume":"333","author":"Paolicelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"e113246","article-title":"Microglia-synapse engulfment via PtdSer-TREM2 ameliorates neuronal hyperactivity in Alzheimer\u2019s disease models","volume":"42","author":"Sokolova","year":"2023","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u0142aszczyk, J.W. (2016). Parkinson\u2019s Disease and Neurodegeneration: GABA-Collapse Hypothesis. Front. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00269"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2018.04.004","article-title":"Human Adult Neurogenesis: Evidence and Remaining Questions","volume":"23","author":"Kempermann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-021-00864-8","article-title":"Adult human neurogenesis: Early studies clarify recent controversies and go further","volume":"37","author":"Nogueira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2019.03.023","article-title":"Adult Neurogenesis, Glia, and the Extracellular Matrix","volume":"24","author":"Cope","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adu9575","article-title":"Identification of proliferating neural progenitors in the adult human hippocampus","volume":"389","author":"Dumitru","year":"2025","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.21307\/ane-2017-041","article-title":"Nigrostriatal interaction in the aging brain: New therapeutic target for Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"77","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neurobiol. Exp. (Wars)"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-9877(80)90040-7","article-title":"Interstitial space\u2014The forgotten organ","volume":"6","author":"Katz","year":"1980","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3781","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2022.tb00232.x","article-title":"Endothelial Glycocalyx","volume":"12","author":"Foote","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R508","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00340.2020","article-title":"The glycocalyx: A central regulator of vascular function","volume":"320","author":"Moore","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1111\/tra.12100","article-title":"Sialic acid linkage in glycosphingolipids is a molecular correlate for trafficking and delivery of extracellular cargo","volume":"14","author":"Ravindran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Traffic"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s10719-023-10120-z","article-title":"Neuroimmunomodulatory properties of polysialic acid","volume":"40","author":"Gretenkort","year":"2023","journal-title":"Glycoconj. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rawal, P., and Zhao, L. (2021). Sialometabolism in Brain Health and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.648617"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-020-03253-2","article-title":"The physiology of regulated BDNF release","volume":"382","author":"Brigadski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"30","article-title":"Adult neurogenesis in humans: A Review of Basic Concepts, History, Current Research, and Clinical Implications","volume":"16","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Innov. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2016.03.001","article-title":"Glutamine Oxidation Is Indispensable for Survival of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells","volume":"23","author":"Tohyama","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2025.102600","article-title":"Adult hippocampal neurogenesis: New avenues for treatment of brain disorders","volume":"20","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-051116-052358","article-title":"Microglia Function in the Central Nervous System During Health and Neurodegeneration","volume":"35","author":"Colonna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20373","article-title":"Extrahippocampal gray matter atrophy and memory impairment in patients with medial temporal lobe epilepsy","volume":"28","author":"Bonilha","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1536","DOI":"10.1002\/wsbm.1536","article-title":"Orexin, serotonin, and energy balance","volume":"14","author":"Mavanji","year":"2022","journal-title":"WIREs Mech. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(18)30026-3","article-title":"The physiology of endocrine systems with ageing","volume":"6","author":"Kaufman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.08.016","article-title":"Metabolic and non-cognitive manifestations of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: The hypothalamus as both culprit and target of pathology","volume":"22","author":"Ishii","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147ra111","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3003748","article-title":"A paravascular pathway facilitates CSF flow through the brain parenchyma and the clearance of interstitial solutes, including amyloid \u03b2","volume":"4","author":"Iliff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ra.2025-0020","DOI":"10.5797\/jnet.ra.2025-0020","article-title":"The Glymphatic System and Its Role in Neurovascular Diseases","volume":"19","author":"Krings","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroendovasc. Ther."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2017.48","article-title":"Cerebral blood flow regulation and neurovascular dysfunction in Alzheimer disease","volume":"18","author":"Kisler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12689","DOI":"10.1111\/jne.12689","article-title":"From sensory circumventricular organs to cerebral cortex: Neural pathways controlling thirst and hunger","volume":"31","author":"McKinley","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8178","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-21-08178.1997","article-title":"The actin-severing protein gelsolin modulates calcium channel and NMDA receptor activities and vulnerability to excitotoxicity in hippocampal neurons","volume":"17","author":"Furukawa","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00093","DOI":"10.1042\/AN20120021","article-title":"Fueling and imaging brain activation","volume":"4","author":"Dienel","year":"2012","journal-title":"ASN Neuro"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u0142aszczyk, J.W. (2025). Biomolecular Basis of Life. Metabolites, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo15060404"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u0142aszczyk, J.W. (2026). Degradation of the Molecular Basis of Life During the Aging Process. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202603.0084.v1"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1038\/jcbfm.2009.188","article-title":"Cerebral blood flow response to functional activation","volume":"30","author":"Paulson","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00062.2017","article-title":"Brain Glucose Metabolism: Integration of Energetics with Function","volume":"99","author":"Dienel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbc.2024.107906","article-title":"Glycolysis, A multifaceted metabolic pathway and signaling hub","volume":"300","author":"Kierans","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"511","article-title":"Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: Evidence from humans and animal models","volume":"108","author":"Rice","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.09.001","article-title":"NAD+ in Brain Aging and Neurodegenerative Disorders","volume":"30","author":"Lautrup","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2020.110841","article-title":"Kynurenine pathway, NAD+ synthesis, and mitochondrial function: Targeting tryptophan metabolism to promote longevity and healthspan","volume":"132","author":"Sutphin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10914","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M209203200","article-title":"Molecular identification of human glutamine- and ammonia-dependent NAD synthetases. Carbon-nitrogen hydrolase domain confers glutamine dependency","volume":"278","author":"Hara","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178646917691938","DOI":"10.1177\/1178646917691938","article-title":"Kynurenine Pathway of Tryptophan Metabolism: Regulatory and Functional Aspects","volume":"10","author":"Badawy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Tryptophan Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u0142aszczyk, J.W. (2020). Energy Metabolism Decline in the Aging Brain-Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Disorders. Metabolites, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202009.0539.v1"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3257","article-title":"Kynurenines in the mammalian brain: When physiology meets pathology","volume":"13","author":"Schwarcz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.13768","article-title":"Kynurenic acid in neurodegenerative disorders-unique neuroprotection or double-edged sword?","volume":"28","author":"Ostapiuk","year":"2022","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fujikawa, M., Ueda, M., and Maruyama, K. (2024). Role of Kynurenine and Its Derivatives in the Neuroimmune System. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137144"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.4161\/cib.18761","article-title":"The post-mitotic state in neurons correlates with a stable nuclear higher-order structure","volume":"5","year":"2012","journal-title":"Commun. Integr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.09.055","article-title":"Mitostasis in Neurons: Maintaining Mitochondria in an Extended Cellular Architecture","volume":"96","author":"Misgeld","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-013-8497-4","article-title":"Insulin resistance and dysregulation of tryptophan-kynurenine and kynurenine-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide metabolic pathways","volume":"48","author":"Oxenkrug","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peron, R., Vatanabe, I.P., Manzine, P.R., Camins, A., and Cominetti, M.R. (2018). Alpha-Secretase ADAM10 Regulation: Insights into Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Treatment. Pharmaceuticals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph11010012"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e71395","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.71395","article-title":"The Role of Dopamine Signaling and Neuroinflammation in Age-Related Cognitive Dysfunction","volume":"16","author":"Bowen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.24272\/j.issn.2095-8137.2021.479","article-title":"Adult hippocampal neurogenesis and its impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"43","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Zool. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1809","article-title":"Neural plasticity in the ageing brain","volume":"7","author":"Burke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12717","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3502-06.2006","article-title":"Plasticity compartments in basal dendrites of neocortical pyramidal neurons","volume":"26","author":"Gordon","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcb.2024.151418","article-title":"Neuroimmune modulation by tryptophan derivatives in neurological and inflammatory disorders","volume":"103","author":"Kondo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hestad, K., Alexander, J., Rootwelt, H., and Aaseth, J.O. (2022). The Role of Tryptophan Dysmetabolism and Quinolinic Acid in Depressive and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12070998"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1586\/14737175.2015.1049999","article-title":"What is the tryptophan kynurenine pathway and why is it important to neurotherapeutics?","volume":"15","author":"Davis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1006\/exnr.1998.6863","article-title":"Evidence for synaptic apoptosis","volume":"153","author":"Mattson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.2217\/nmt-2016-0005","article-title":"Nondopaminergic treatments for Parkinson\u2019s disease: Current and future prospects","volume":"6","author":"Freitas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurodegener. Dis. Manag."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glu057","article-title":"Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) and its potential contribution to age-associated diseases","volume":"69","author":"Franceschi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magi, S., Piccirillo, S., Amoroso, S., and Lariccia, V. (2019). Excitatory Amino Acid Transporters (EAATs): Glutamate Transport and Beyond. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20225674"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teleanu, R.I., Niculescu, A.G., Roza, E., Vlad\u00e2cenco, O., Grumezescu, A.M., and Teleanu, D.M. (2022). Neurotransmitters-Key Factors in Neurological and Neurodegenerative Disorders of the Central Nervous System. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23115954"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70029","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.70029","article-title":"The Glutamate\/GABA-Glutamine Cycle: Insights, Updates, and Advances","volume":"169","author":"Andersen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.vh.2022.09.002","article-title":"The antioxidant glutathione","volume":"121","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vitam. Horm."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"8","article-title":"Glutathione!","volume":"13","author":"Pizzorno","year":"2014","journal-title":"Integr. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14617","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14617","article-title":"The role of glutamate and glutamine metabolism and related transporters in nerve cells","volume":"30","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370221989263","article-title":"Influence of glutamate and GABA transport on brain excitatory\/inhibitory balance","volume":"246","author":"Sears","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood)"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McKenna, M.C. (2013). Glutamate pays its own way in astrocytes. Front. Endocrinol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2013.00191"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2011.04.087","article-title":"Glutathione is a physiologic reservoir of neuronal glutamate","volume":"409","author":"Koga","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2701","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1817885116","article-title":"The glutathione cycle shapes synaptic glutamate activity","volume":"116","author":"Sedlak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nec.2020.02.001","article-title":"Networks in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"31","author":"Schuele","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.3390\/nu4101399","article-title":"Dysregulation of glutathione homeostasis in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"4","author":"Johnson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1006\/abbi.1994.1167","article-title":"S-thiolation of individual human neutrophil proteins including actin by stimulation of the respiratory burst: Evidence against a role for glutathione disulfide","volume":"310","author":"Chai","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60761-756-3_18","article-title":"Measurement of oxidized\/reduced glutathione ratio","volume":"648","author":"Owen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9516","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.092429","article-title":"Glutamine synthetase in muscle is required for glutamine production during fasting and extrahepatic ammonia detoxification","volume":"285","author":"He","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cruzat, V., Macedo Rogero, M., Noel Keane, K., Curi, R., and Newsholme, P. (2018). Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translation. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201809.0459.v1"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1101","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.1998.274.4.C1101","article-title":"Glutamine transport by the blood-brain barrier: A possible mechanism for nitrogen removal","volume":"274","author":"Lee","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim\u00f3n, I.D., Angulo-Cruz, I., S\u00e1nchez-Abdon, L., and Patricio-Mart\u00ednez, A. (2021). Disturbance of the Glutamate-Glutamine Cycle, Secondary to Hepatic Damage, Compromises Memory Function. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.578922"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4062\/biomolther.2015.078","article-title":"Alpha-Ketoglutarate: Physiological Functions and Applications","volume":"24","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qureshi, T., Bj\u00f8rkmo, M., Nordengen, K., Gundersen, V., Utheim, T.P., Watne, L.O., Storm-Mathisen, J., Hassel, B., and Chaudhry, F.A. (2020). Slc38a1 Conveys Astroglia-Derived Glutamine into GABAergic Interneurons for Neurotransmitter GABA Synthesis. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9071686"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2021.114786","article-title":"Role of glutamate excitotoxicity and glutamate transporter EAAT2 in epilepsy: Opportunities for novel therapeutics development","volume":"193","author":"Green","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2243","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab111","article-title":"The role of noradrenaline in cognition and cognitive disorders","volume":"144","author":"Holland","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-020-0360-9","article-title":"Locus coeruleus: A new look at the blue spot","volume":"21","author":"Poe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00042.2016","article-title":"Physiology of Astroglia","volume":"98","author":"Verkhratsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wahis, J., and Holt, M.G. (2021). Astrocytes, Noradrenaline, \u03b11-Adrenoreceptors, and Neuromodulation: Evidence and Unanswered Questions. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2021.645691"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70111","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.70111","article-title":"The Locus Coeruleus: Anatomy, Physiology, and Stress-Related Neuropsychiatric Disorders","volume":"61","author":"Reyes","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2009.07.004","article-title":"Hypothalamic and dietary control of temperature-mediated longevity","volume":"9","author":"Tabarean","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-015-1392-5","article-title":"Nucleus basalis of Meynert revisited: Anatomy, history and differential involvement in Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"129","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2021.109298","article-title":"Genetically encoded sensors towards imaging cAMP and PKA activity in vivo","volume":"362","author":"Massengill","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-021-00779-7","article-title":"Dopamine, behavior, and addiction","volume":"28","author":"Wise","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reynolds, L.M., and Flores, C. (2021). Mesocorticolimbic Dopamine Pathways Across Adolescence: Diversity in Development. Front. Neural Circuits, 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2021.735625"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1101\/sqb.2018.83.037457","article-title":"Nucleus Accumbens Modulation in Reward and Aversion","volume":"83","author":"Klawonn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2007.05.001","article-title":"Adenosine A2A receptors and basal ganglia physiology","volume":"83","author":"Schiffmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seo, J.P., and Koo, D.K. (2021). Aging of the Nigrostriatal Tract in the Human Brain: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study. Medicina, 57.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina57090994"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Missiroli, S., Genovese, I., Perrone, M., Vezzani, B., Vitto, V.A.M., and Giorgi, C. (2020). The Role of Mitochondria in Inflammation, From Cancer to Neurodegenerative Disorders. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9030740"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8161","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1554-07.2007","article-title":"The role of the dorsal striatum in reward and decision-making","volume":"27","author":"Balleine","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2020.09.018","article-title":"Motor Control: Memory and Motor Control in the Dorsal Striatum","volume":"30","author":"Kravitz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1113\/JP273666","article-title":"Choline and acetylcholine: What a difference an acetate makes!","volume":"595","author":"Gibb","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2179","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51920","article-title":"Advances in the study of cholinergic circuits in the central nervous system","volume":"10","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202200707","DOI":"10.1002\/cbic.202200707","article-title":"Live-Cell Glycocalyx Engineering","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chembiochem"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blusztajn, J.K., Slack, B.E., and Mellott, T.J. (2017). Neuroprotective Actions of Dietary Choline. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9080815"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2016.11.003","article-title":"NAD and the aging process: Role in life, death and everything in between","volume":"455","author":"Chini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-020-00313-x","article-title":"NAD+ metabolism and its roles in cellular processes during ageing","volume":"22","author":"Covarrubias","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1007\/s40473-014-0010-5","article-title":"Vagus Nerve Stimulation","volume":"1","author":"Howland","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Behav. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, R., Peng, Z., Zhuo, M., Song, Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, X., Deng, Z., Xia, L., and Zhong, M.L. (2026). Cholinergic reflex control of inflammation: Mechanistic and translational advances in transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation across rheumatic, metabolic, and postoperative disorders. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1702185"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881117725915","article-title":"Serotonin and brain function: A tale of two receptors","volume":"31","author":"Nutt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-021-01064-9","article-title":"The Roles of Serotonin in Neuropsychiatric Disorders","volume":"42","author":"Pourhamzeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J\u00e1szber\u00e9nyi, M., Thurz\u00f3, B., Bagosi, Z., V\u00e9csei, L., and Tanaka, M. (2024). The Orexin\/Hypocretin System, the Peptidergic Regulator of Vigilance, Orchestrates Adaptation to Stress. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12020448"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.33696\/Signaling.6.134","article-title":"Monoamine Oxidase B in Astrocytic Gaba Synthesis: A Central Mechanism in Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation","volume":"6","author":"Naffaa","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cell. Signal."},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"477","article-title":"Monoamine Oxidase-B Inhibitors for the Treatment of Parkinson\u2019s Disease: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"12","author":"Tan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-21054-9_14","article-title":"Monoamine Oxidase B (MAO-B): A Target for Rational Drug Development in Schizophrenia Using PET Imaging as an Example","volume":"30","author":"Meyer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reth.2025.03.008","article-title":"Prospects and challenges in NMDAR signaling in spinal cord injury recovery and neural circuit remodeling","volume":"29","author":"Gong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Regen. Ther."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10237","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.172399499","article-title":"Appraising the brain\u2019s energy budget","volume":"99","author":"Raichle","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2281714","DOI":"10.1080\/19336950.2023.2281714","article-title":"Voltage gated sodium and calcium channels: Discovery, structure, function, and Pharmacology","volume":"17","author":"Catterall","year":"2023","journal-title":"Channels"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3240","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17062-2","article-title":"Astrocytic Ca2+ signaling is reduced during sleep and is involved in the regulation of slow wave sleep","volume":"11","author":"Bojarskaite","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zqad019","DOI":"10.1093\/function\/zqad019","article-title":"Dissociation Between Neuronal and Astrocytic Calcium Activity in Response to Locomotion in Mice","volume":"4","author":"Fedotova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Function"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X15000667","article-title":"Norepinephrine ignites local hotspots of neuronal excitation: How arousal amplifies selectivity in perception and memory","volume":"39","author":"Mather","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-7757-9_11","article-title":"Ryanodine Receptor Structure and Function in Health and Disease","volume":"87","author":"Santulli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Subcell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romero-Garcia, S., Prado-Garcia, H., Valencia-Camargo, A.D., and Alvarez-Pulido, A. (2019). Lactic Acidosis Promotes Mitochondrial Biogenesis in Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells, Supporting Proliferation Under Normoxia or Survival Under Hypoxia. Front. Oncol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2019.01053"},{"key":"ref_147","first-page":"203","article-title":"The gut-brain axis, interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems","volume":"28","author":"Carabotti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4030","article-title":"Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS","volume":"18","author":"Erny","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000696","article-title":"Abnormal synaptic pruning during adolescence underlying the development of psychotic disorders","volume":"34","author":"Germann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chmielarz, M., Sobieszcza\u0144ska, B., and \u015aroda-Pomianek, K. (2024). Metabolic Endotoxemia: From the Gut to Neurodegeneration. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137006"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pang, Y., Yang, J., Liu, J., Xie, Z., and Wang, J. (2026). Metabolic interactions in the brain: The crucial roles of neurons, astrocytes, and microglia in health and disease. Front. Neurosci., 20.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2026.1731771"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.24145","article-title":"Phagocytic astrocytes: Emerging from the shadows of microglia","volume":"70","author":"Konishi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s12987-025-00647-8","article-title":"A budget for brain metabolic water production by glucose catabolism during rest, rises in activity and sleep","volume":"22","author":"Dienel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fluids Barriers CNS"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7698","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0619-21.2021","article-title":"The Glymphatic System: A Novel Component of Fundamental Neurobiology","volume":"41","author":"Hablitz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_155","first-page":"212","article-title":"Sleep disorders contribute to the development of dementia and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"2","year":"2023","journal-title":"Explor. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corbali, O., and Levey, A.I. (2025). Glymphatic system in neurological disorders and implications for brain health. Front. Neurol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1543725"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Postnov, D., Semyachkina-Glushkovskaya, O., Litvinenko, E., Kurths, J., and Penzel, T. (2023). Mechanisms of Activation of Brain\u2019s Drainage during Sleep: The Nightlife of Astrocytes. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12222667"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y.R., Lv, Q.K., Xue, X.Y., Zhang, Y., Shi, L.Y., Sun, M.L., Shen, Y., Mao, C.J., Wang, L.H., and Wang, F. (2026). Sleep deprivation accelerates Parkinson\u2019s disease pathology by upregulating LAG3 in astrocytes and disrupting glymphatic system function. J. Adv. Res., in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2026.04.035"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09261-y","article-title":"Mitochondrial origins of the pressure to sleep","volume":"645","author":"Sarnataro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_160","first-page":"238","article-title":"Metabolic disturbances in diseases with neurological involvement","volume":"5","author":"Duarte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vercruysse, P., Vieau, D., Blum, D., Peters\u00e9n, \u00c5., and Dupuis, L. (2018). Hypothalamic Alterations in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Their Relation to Abnormal Energy Metabolism. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2018.00002"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-011-9547-x","article-title":"Eating disturbance in behavioural-variant frontotemporal dementia","volume":"45","author":"Piguet","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.4103\/2152-7806.169561","article-title":"A comprehensive review of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"6","author":"Zarei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surg. Neurol. Int."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1179\/1743132812Y.0000000049","article-title":"Is hyperlipidemia correlated with longer survival in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis?","volume":"34","author":"Dedic","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurol. Res."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4425","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awad202","article-title":"Skeletal muscle in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"146","author":"Shefner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2021-327216","article-title":"The cerebellum in ALS: Friend or foe?","volume":"92","author":"Pradat","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2015.1584","article-title":"Effect of Presymptomatic Body Mass Index and Consumption of Fat and Alcohol on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis","volume":"72","author":"Huisman","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70156","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.70156","article-title":"The Role of Kinases in Neurodegenerative Diseases: From Pathogenesis to Treatment","volume":"61","author":"Naim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-024-02180-3","article-title":"Biological function of sialic acid and sialylation in human health and disease","volume":"10","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3115","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-023-01365-1","article-title":"Roles of ApoE4 on the Pathogenesis in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and the Potential Therapeutic Approaches","volume":"43","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krawczuk, D., Kulczy\u0144ska-Przybik, A., and Mroczko, B. (2025). The Potential Regulators of Amyloidogenic Pathway of APP Processing in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines13071513"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1007\/s10495-023-01915-4","article-title":"Apoptosis and eryptosis: Similarities and differences","volume":"29","author":"Tkachenko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Apoptosis"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.327","article-title":"Role of tau protein in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: The prime pathological player","volume":"163","author":"Muralidar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_174","first-page":"151979","article-title":"Tau Hyperphosphorylation and Oxidative Stress, a Critical Vicious Circle in Neurodegenerative Tauopathies?","volume":"2015","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michalicova, A., Majerova, P., and Kovac, A. (2020). Tau Protein and Its Role in Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2020.570045"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1111\/neup.12974","article-title":"Association between hypothalamic Alzheimer\u2019s disease pathology and body mass index: The Hisayama study","volume":"44","author":"Yagita","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropathology"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-820107-7.00021-5","article-title":"The orexin\/hypocretin system in neuropsychiatric disorders: Relation to signs and symptoms","volume":"180","author":"Fronczek","year":"2021","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yavari, M., Kalupahana, N.S., Harris, B.N., Ramalingam, L., Zu, Y., Kahathuduwa, C.N., and Moustaid-Moussa, N. (2025). Mechanisms Linking Obesity, Insulin Resistance, and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Effects of Polyphenols and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17071203"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3094","DOI":"10.1113\/JP288914","article-title":"\u03b1-Synuclein oligomers slow down action potential firing and enhance dopamine release by increasing Cav2.2 currents in midbrain dopaminergic neurons","volume":"604","author":"Tomagra","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cascella, R., and Cecchi, C. (2021). Calcium Dyshomeostasis in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Pathogenesis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22094914"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-024-01407-w","article-title":"The relationship between amyloid pathology, cerebral small vessel disease, glymphatic dysfunction, and cognition: A study based on Alzheimer\u2019s disease continuum participants","volume":"16","author":"Hong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.05.014","article-title":"Acetyl coenzyme A, a central metabolite and second messenger","volume":"21","author":"Pietrocola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.11.002","article-title":"NAD+ Intermediates: The Biology and Therapeutic Potential of NMN and NR","volume":"27","author":"Yoshino","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/12\/5190\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T00:46:26Z","timestamp":1780965986000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/12\/5190"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]},"references-count":183,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27125190"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27125190","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]}}}