{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:53:55Z","timestamp":1785430435980,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781136000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82270188"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82270188"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["82270188"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82270188"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005147","name":"Applied Basic Research Key Project of Yunnan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["202301AS070067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202301AS070067"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005147","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Yunnan Health Training Project of High Level Talents","award":["L-2025018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["L-2025018"]}]},{"name":"Yunnan Provincial Innovation Team of Therapeutic Neutralizing Antibody","award":["202405AS350026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202405AS350026"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is an aggressive subtype of ALL characterized by unfavorable clinical outcomes. Despite significant progress in deciphering the genetic and epigenetic landscapes of T-ALL, the underlying molecular mechanisms, particularly in non-early T-cell precursor (non-ETP) T-ALL, remain incompletely understood. In this study, functional assays were performed using three well-characterized non-ETP T-ALL cell lines. In vivo therapeutic efficacy was evaluated using non-ETP T-ALL xenograft models. Transcriptomic profiling was performed by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) followed by bioinformatic analysis. Publicly available clinical datasets from T-ALL patients were mined to analyze survival outcomes. We found that activation of CD40 ligand (CD40LG) or CD28 accelerates cell-cycle progression and enhances the migratory capacity of non-ETP T-ALL cells, with CD40LG uniquely upregulating CXCR4 to mediate bone marrow tropism. Further RNA-seq and functional validation identified Rho GTPase signaling, specifically RhoA\/Rac1\/Rac2, as a pivotal downstream effector of CD40LG\/CD28, leading to therapeutic resistance to PI3K inhibition. Pharmacological blocking RhoA or Rac1 using small-molecule compounds not only induces remarkable cytotoxicity but also sensitizes resistant cells to PI3K inhibitors, both in vitro and in vivo. Clinically, elevated expression of CD40LG, CD28, RHOA, or RAC2 correlates with poor prognosis in non-ETP T-ALL patients. These findings uncover a novel CD40LG\/CD28-Rho GTPase axis as a key driver of pathogenesis and a potential therapeutic vulnerability in non-ETP T-ALL, providing a new target for precision intervention and a promising strategy to overcome therapeutic resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27125306","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T06:53:10Z","timestamp":1781247190000},"page":"5306","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["CD40LG\/CD28-Mediated Rho GTPase Signaling Drives Survival and Chemoresistance in Non-ETP T-ALL"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2210-3664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China"},{"name":"Graduate School, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhexi","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China"},{"name":"Graduate School, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9992-7188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chenyang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zihao","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2684-512X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Han","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming 650118, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bardelli, V., Arniani, S., Pierini, V., Di Giacomo, D., Pierini, T., Gorello, P., Mecucci, C., and La Starza, R. 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