{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T09:53:38Z","timestamp":1781603618894,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn\u2019s disease (CD), is a chronic relapsing inflammatory disorder characterized by epithelial barrier dysfunction, immune dysregulation, microbiota imbalance, and progressive tissue remodeling. Because the pathogenesis of IBD involves complex interactions among genetic, immunological, microbial, and environmental factors, experimental animal models have become indispensable tools for investigating disease mechanisms and evaluating therapeutic strategies. Various experimental colitis models have been developed to reproduce distinct pathological features of human IBD, including chemically induced models, genetically engineered systems, adoptive immune-transfer models, and infectious or microbiota-associated models. Rodent models remain the most widely used experimental platforms because of their accessibility, reproducibility, and well-established genetic manipulation technologies. These systems have significantly contributed to understanding inflammatory signaling pathways, epithelial barrier injury, immune cell dysregulation, and gut microbial crosstalk. However, important species-specific differences in intestinal anatomy, immune responses, microbiota composition, and pharmacokinetics limit direct translation of rodent findings into clinical applications. To overcome these limitations, increasing attention has been directed toward large-animal models, particularly pig and minipig systems, which more closely resemble human gastrointestinal anatomy, digestive physiology, immune regulation, and microbiome-related characteristics. Porcine models additionally support clinically relevant procedures, including repeated colonoscopy, serial biopsy sampling, pharmacokinetic evaluation, and longitudinal therapeutic monitoring. Recent advances in genome-editing technologies and multi-omics approaches have further enhanced the translational utility of porcine IBD models. This review summarizes major experimental colitis animal models, discusses their pathological and translational characteristics, and highlights the growing importance of pig and minipig systems as human-applicable platforms for preclinical therapeutic evaluation and translational IBD research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27125414","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T09:06:52Z","timestamp":1781600812000},"page":"5414","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Translational Animal Models in Colitis: From Rodents to Pig and Minipig Platforms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7281-6322","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Woon Kyu","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-020-00360-x","article-title":"The four epidemiological stages in the global evolution of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"18","author":"Kaplan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32448-0","article-title":"Worldwide incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in the 21st century: A systematic review of population-based studies","volume":"390","author":"Ng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(19)30333-4","article-title":"The global, regional, and national burden of inflammatory bowel disease in 195 countries and territories, 1990\u20132017","volume":"5","author":"Alatab","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2652","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2002697","article-title":"Pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"383","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-024-01008-6","article-title":"Strategies for targeting cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"24","author":"Neurath","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Integrative HMP (iHMP) Research Network Consortium (2019). The integrative human microbiome project. Nature, 569, 641\u2013648."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0306-4","article-title":"Gut microbiome structure and metabolic activity in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"4","author":"Franzosa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2015.01.006","article-title":"Experimental models of inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"1","author":"Kiesler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Katsandegwaza, B., Horsnell, W., and Smith, K. (2022). Inflammatory bowel disease: A review of pre-clinical murine models of human disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23169344"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2010.05.007","article-title":"Animal model of IBD: Linkage to human disease","volume":"10","author":"Mizoguchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2011.11.002","article-title":"The pig: A model for human infectious diseases","volume":"20","author":"Meurens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dawson, H.D., Loveland, J.E., Pascal, G., Gilbert, J.G.R., Uenishi, H., Mann, K.M., Sang, Y., Zhang, J., Carvalho-Silva, D., and Hunt, T. (2013). Structural and functional annotation of the porcine immune system. BMC Genom., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-14-332"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd5758","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abd5758","article-title":"Importance of the pig as a human biomedical model","volume":"13","author":"Lunney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2015.01.004","article-title":"Porcine models of digestive disease: The future of large animal translational research","volume":"166","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2653","article-title":"Intestinal mucosal barrier function in health and disease","volume":"9","author":"Turner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(24)00390-X","article-title":"The intestinal barrier: A pivotal role in health, inflammation, and cancer","volume":"10","author":"Neurath","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.7861\/clinmed.2023-0493","article-title":"Crohn\u2019s disease: An update","volume":"23","author":"Cockburn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2017.03.007","article-title":"Mend your fences: The epithelial barrier and its relationship with mucosal immunity in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"4","author":"Martini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.20.100301.064816","article-title":"The immunology of mucosal models of inflammation","volume":"20","author":"Strober","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.03.017","article-title":"Cytokine networks in the pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"50","author":"Friedrich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-070119-115104","article-title":"Interaction between the microbiota, epithelia, and immune cells in the intestine","volume":"38","author":"Kayama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12328-017-0813-5","article-title":"Gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"11","author":"Nishida","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kho, Z.Y., and Lal, S.K. (2018). The human gut microbiome\u2014A potential controller of wellness and disease. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01835"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, I., Solas, J., Pinto, R., and Mateus, V. (2022). Chronic experimental model of TNBS-induced colitis to study inflammatory bowel disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23094739"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)80068-P","article-title":"Interleukin-10-deficient mice develop chronic enterocolitis","volume":"75","author":"Rennick","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2017.044","article-title":"Chemically induced mouse models of acute and chronic intestinal inflammation","volume":"12","author":"Wirtz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2013.11.008","article-title":"Role of the enteric microbiota in intestinal homeostasis and inflammation","volume":"68","author":"Koboziev","year":"2014","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-394596-9.00009-3","article-title":"Animal models of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"105","author":"Mizoguchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1002\/0471142735.im1525s104","article-title":"Dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice","volume":"104","author":"Chassaing","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2016.07.019","article-title":"The TNBS-induced colitis animal model: An overview","volume":"11","author":"Antoniou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.188.10.1929","article-title":"Oxazolone colitis: A murine model of T helper cell type 2 colitis treatable with antibodies to interleukin 4","volume":"188","author":"Boirivant","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)80067-O","article-title":"Ulcerative colitis-like disease in mice with a disrupted interleukin-2 gene","volume":"75","author":"Sadlack","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2014.12.010","article-title":"NOD1 and NOD2: Signaling, host defense, and inflammatory disease","volume":"41","author":"Caruso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/5.11.1461","article-title":"Phenotypically distinct subsets of CD4+ T cells induce or protect from chronic intestinal inflammation in C.B-17 scid mice","volume":"5","author":"Powrie","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.30802\/AALAS-CM-19-000009","article-title":"Lack of effect of murine norovirus infection on the CD4+ CD45RBhigh T-cell adoptive transfer mouse model of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"70","author":"Hsu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comp. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G135","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.90462.2008","article-title":"T cell transfer model of chronic colitis: Concepts, considerations, and tricks of the trade","volume":"296","author":"Ostanin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3315","article-title":"Citrobacter rodentium: Infection, inflammation and the microbiota","volume":"12","author":"Collins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20020556","article-title":"Bacteria-triggered CD4+ T regulatory cell suppress Helicobacter hepaticus-induced colitis","volume":"196","author":"Kullberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izad312","article-title":"Unveiling colitis: A journey through the dextran sodium sulfate-induced model","volume":"30","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Per\u0161e, M. (2026). DSS colitis model: Traps, tricks, and reporting recommendations. Biomedicines, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202603.1112.v1"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1002\/bdd.2510160502","article-title":"Comparison of the gastrointestinal anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry of humans and commonly used laboratory animals","volume":"16","author":"Kararli","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biopharm. Drug Dispos."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2016.09.003","article-title":"Large animal models: The key to translational discovery in digestive disease research","volume":"2","author":"Ziegler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954422413000152","article-title":"Use of pigs as a potential model for research into dietary modulation of the human gut microbiota","volume":"26","author":"Heinritz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70043","DOI":"10.1002\/cph4.70043","article-title":"Pig as an interorgan communication model and its applications in biomaterials, drug delivery, and bioengineering research","volume":"15","author":"Wnuk","year":"2025","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panah, F.M., Nielsen, K.D., Simpson, G.L., Sch\u00f6nherz, A.A., Schramm, A., Lauridsen, C., Nielsen, T.S., H\u00f8jberg, O., Fredborg, M., and Purup, S. (2023). A westernized diet changed the colonic bacterial composition and metabolite concentration in a dextran sulfate sodium pig model for ulcerative colitis. Front. Microbiol., 14, Correction in Front. Microbiol.\u00a02023, 14, 1018242.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1238157"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.17691\/stm2024.16.6.04","article-title":"The model of Crohn\u2019s disease on large laboratory animals\u2014Pigs","volume":"16","author":"Fedulova","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sovrem. Tekhnologii Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szkopek, D., Woli\u0144ski, J., Kopiasz, \u0141., Dziendzikowska, K., Zaworski, K., Sapierzy\u0144ski, R., and Gromadzka-Ostrowska, J. (2025). Efficacy of 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (DNBS) in the maintenance of a model of inflammatory bowel disease in pigs (Sus scrofa domestica). Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26189115"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjad034","article-title":"TNF\u0394ARE pigs: A translational Crohn\u2019s disease model","volume":"17","author":"Winogrodzki","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S.J., Nian, H., and Yuan, L. (2026). Human Microbiota-Associated Pig Models for Translational Microbiome Research: A Scoping Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27041987"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4397","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i28.4397","article-title":"Application of Single-Cell Omics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"29","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2024-334165","article-title":"Single-Cell Omics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Recent Insights and Future Clinical Applications","volume":"74","author":"Salas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2024.07.011","article-title":"Decoding the mosaic of inflammatory bowel disease: Illuminating insights with single-cell RNA technology","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2025.03.005","article-title":"Artificial intelligence\u2013driven personalized medicine: Transforming clinical practice in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"169","author":"Iacucci","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1080\/03639045.2020.1820041","article-title":"In Vitro and In Vivo amelioration of colitis using targeted delivery system of cyclosporine A in New Zealand rabbits","volume":"46","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e03178","article-title":"Exploratory clinical characterization of experimentally induced ulcerative colitis in nonhuman primates","volume":"6","author":"Takahashi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v16.i9.1050","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease in the dog: Differences and similarities with humans","volume":"16","author":"Cerquetella","year":"2010","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, C., Chen, D., Zhong, R., and Peng, X. (2024). Animal models of inflammatory bowel disease: Category and Evaluation indexes. Gastroenterol. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1093\/gastro\/goae021"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"238","article-title":"Clinicopathologic study of dextran sulfate sodium experimental murine colitis","volume":"69","author":"Cooper","year":"1993","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2024.104938","article-title":"Histomorphological scoring of murine colitis models: A practical guide for the evaluation of colitis and colitis-associated cancer","volume":"140","author":"Remke","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crohns.2008.05.009","article-title":"Intestinal fibrosis in inflammatory bowel disease\u2014Current knowledge and future perspectives","volume":"2","author":"Rieder","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2006.446","article-title":"High resolution colonoscopy in live mice","volume":"1","author":"Becker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v22.i3.996","article-title":"Diagnostic imaging advances in murine models of colitis","volume":"22","author":"Lenz","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.5217\/ir.2015.13.1.11","article-title":"Intestinal permeability regulation by tight junction: Implication on inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intest. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2015.186","article-title":"Immunopathogenesis of IBD: Current state of the art","volume":"13","author":"Fiocchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fiocchi, C. (2023). Omics and multi-omics in inflammatory bowel disease: No integration, No breakthroughs. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241914912"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-019-0258-z","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived metabolites as key actors in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"17","author":"Lavelle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17562848251325525","DOI":"10.1177\/17562848251325525","article-title":"Rediscovering histology-the application of artificial intelligence in inflammatory bowel disease histologic assessment","volume":"18","author":"Santacroce","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(89)80079-4","article-title":"Hapten-induced model of chronic inflammation and ulceration in the rat colon","volume":"96","author":"Morris","year":"1989","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6016","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v23.i33.6016","article-title":"Dextran sodium sulfate colitis murine model: An indispensable tool for advancing our understanding of inflammatory bowel diseases pathogenesis","volume":"23","author":"Eichele","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3661","article-title":"Cytokines in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"14","author":"Neurath","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10208","article-title":"Intestinal homeostasis and its breakdown in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"474","author":"Maloy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2016.208","article-title":"Current and emerging therapeutic targets for IBD","volume":"14","author":"Neurath","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-019-0415-0","article-title":"Targeting immune cell circuits and trafficking in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"20","author":"Neurath","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)08512-4","article-title":"Maintenance infliximab for Crohn\u2019s Disease: The ACCENT I randomised trial","volume":"359","author":"Hanauer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1215734","article-title":"Vedolizumab as induction and maintenance therapy for ulcerative colitis","volume":"369","author":"Feagan","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1602773","article-title":"Ustekinumab as induction and maintenance therapy for Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"375","author":"Feagan","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30182-4","article-title":"Multidonor intensive faecal microbiota transplantation for active ulcerative colitis: A randomised placebo-controlled trial","volume":"389","author":"Paramsothy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ko, J.Z.H., Johnson, S., and Dave, M. (2021). Efficacy and safety of mesenchymal stem\/stromal cell therapy for iflammatory bowel diseases: An up-to-date systematic review. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11010082"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5356760","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/5356760","article-title":"Exosomes derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells relieve inflammatory bowel disease in mice","volume":"2017","author":"Mao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300ra128","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaa5657","article-title":"An inflammation-targeting hydrogel for local drug delivery in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.201000320","article-title":"Recent advances in the use of Sus scrofa (Pig) as a model system for proteomic studies","volume":"11","author":"Verma","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.4155\/fmc.12.113","article-title":"The development of swine models in drug discovery and development","volume":"4","author":"Swindle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000287","article-title":"Animal models of inflammatory bowel disease: How useful are they really?","volume":"32","author":"Kolios","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1080\/09553002.2018.1552377","article-title":"Morphological and functional impairment in the gut in a partial body irradiation minipig model of GI-ARS","volume":"96","author":"Kaur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Radiat. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray, M., Guido, S., and Kugadas, A. (2022). Editorial: The use of large animal models to improve pre-clinical translational research. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.1086912"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, J., and Huang, S. (2025). Intestinal organoids in inflammatory bowel disease: Advances, applications, and future directions. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2025.1517121"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/12\/5414\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T09:14:53Z","timestamp":1781601293000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/12\/5414"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27125414"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27125414","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]]}}}