{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T01:35:21Z","timestamp":1792287321650,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive therapeutic strategy that uses red and near-infrared (NIR) light in the 590\u2013950 nm range to modulate the cellular and molecular pathways involved in retinal homeostasis. At the molecular level, PBM acts primarily through photon absorption by cytochrome c oxidase (CcO, complex IV of the mitochondrial electron transport chain), whose four metal centres\u2014two copper (CuA and CuB) and two heme groups (heme a and heme a3)\u2014absorb light across approximately 600\u20131000 nm. Photon capture promotes photodissociation of inhibitory nitric oxide (NO) from the binuclear CuB\u2013heme a3 centre, accelerates electron transfer, restores the proton-motive force and increases ATP synthesis. These primary events trigger a coordinated molecular programme that includes (i) transient mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) bursts that activate the Nrf2\/Keap1\/ARE axis and upregulate phase II antioxidant enzymes (HO-1, NQO1, GCLC, SOD2, catalase, GPx); (ii) calcium- and cAMP-dependent secondary signalling that converges on PI3K\/Akt, MAPK\/ERK, AMPK and mTOR pathways; (iii) suppression of NF-\u03baB-driven cytokine production (TNF-\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2, IL-6) and of NLRP3 inflammasome activation; (iv) downregulation of the HIF-1\u03b1\/VEGF axis, particularly at 590 nm; (v) anti-apoptotic remodelling of the Bcl-2\/Bax ratio with reduced cytochrome c release and caspase-3\/9 activation; and (vi) PGC-1\u03b1\/TFAM\/NRF1-driven mitochondrial biogenesis, alongside restoration of fission\/fusion homeostasis (Drp1, Mfn1\/2, Opa1) and PINK1\/Parkin-mediated mitophagy. Wavelength specificity has a defined molecular basis: 590 nm modulates VEGF signalling and RPE pump activity, 660 nm interacts with the CuB centre and enhances O2 binding at CcO, and 850 nm is absorbed by CuA and supports electron entry into complex IV. A second molecular axis is the bidirectional crosstalk between PBM and the circadian system: mitochondrial respiration, ATP turnover and CcO activity oscillate over the 24 h cycle under the control of the BMAL1\/CLOCK and PER\/CRY core machinery, the NAD+\/SIRT1\u2013SIRT3 axis and REV-ERB\u03b1. Preliminary preclinical and human observations suggest that NIR-induced bioenergetic and functional gains may be coupled to this rhythm, with greater benefit reported when light is delivered in the morning window (\u224808:00\u201311:00); this time dependence should be regarded as an emerging hypothesis rather than an established clinical principle. The clinical evidence is unevenly developed across indications. It is most robust for non-exudative age-related macular degeneration, where multiwavelength PBM (590\/660\/850 nm; Valeda Light Delivery System) has shown disease-modifying potential in randomized controlled trials (LIGHTSITE I\u2013III and the LIGHTSITE IIIB extension), with sustained BCVA gains and reduced incidence of geographic atrophy over 24 months and beyond. Evidence for retinitis pigmentosa, central serous chorioretinopathy and, with red-light monotherapy, childhood myopia is at present limited to small or short-term studies and remains preliminary. This narrative review synthesizes the molecular machinery engaged by PBM, integrates clinical findings across retinal diseases and discusses how chronotherapeutic delivery of light, aligned with the molecular clock, may further optimize therapeutic efficacy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27135683","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T05:48:16Z","timestamp":1782366496000},"page":"5683","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Molecular Mechanisms of Photobiomodulation in Retinal Diseases: Cytochrome c Oxidase, Mitochondrial Bioenergetics and Cytoprotective Signalling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4563-1570","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rubens Camargo","family":"Siqueira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Rubens Siqueira Research Center, S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 do Rio Preto 15010-100, SP, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program, Faculty of Medicine of S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 do Rio Preto\u2014FAMERP, S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 do Rio Preto 15010-100, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2020.100858","article-title":"Mechanisms of mitochondrial dysfunction and their impact on age-related macular degeneration","volume":"79","author":"Kaarniranta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. 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