{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]],"date-time":"2026-09-05T01:54:40Z","timestamp":1788573280564,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Zona Pellucida (ZP) and its structural analogs are evolutionarily ancient extracellular matrix components. These are essential for oocyte protection, species-specific gamete recognition, and prevention of polyspermy across Metazoa. Defined by the conserved ZP-domain\u2014comprising ZP-N and ZP-C subdomains\u2014these glycoproteins self-assemble into fibrillar matrices through tightly regulated polymerization. Mechanisms of the regulated polymerization involve furin cleavage, disulfide bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. Once considered a vertebrate innovation, the canonical ZP-domain\u2014defined by its bipartite ZP-N\/ZP-C architecture, eight conserved cysteine residues, and capacity for matrix polymerization\u2014is now recognized as an ancient metazoan extracellular module, with homologs identified in basal lineages including Porifera, Cnidaria, and Placozoa. While ZP-like sequences have been reported in choanoflagellates such as Salpingoeca rosetta, these lack the complete canonical features and are considered distant structural relatives rather than true ZP-modules. There they function in cell adhesion and tissue integrity, suggesting an origin predating the evolution of specialized reproductive coats. Previous phylogenetic analyses across 97 metazoan species have revealed that vertebrate ZP genes arose from ancestral duplications of the canonical ZP-module. Accordingly, they give rise to eight subfamilies (ZP1\u2013ZP4, ZPD, ZPAX, ZPX, ZPY), with lineage-specific expansions, losses, and pseudogenization reflecting adaptations to diverse reproductive strategies. Positive selection in sperm-binding regions of ZP2 and ZP3 drives a rapid adaptive evolution. It underscores coevolutionary arms races with sperm ligands, contributing to reproductive isolation and speciation. In invertebrates such as abalone and insects, ZP-domain proteins mediate analogous functions through lineage-specific elaborations, including tandem repeats and domain shuffling. Post-translational modifications, particularly glycosylation, fine-tune sperm receptor specificity and matrix stability. The functional transition from a general protective barrier in early metazoans to a sophisticated gamete recognition interface in vertebrates exemplifies modular evolution. This synthesis highlights the domain-level deep homology of ZP-domain proteins as a foundational element of metazoan extracellular matrices, repurposed through gene duplication, neofunctionalization, and selection to meet the demands of evolving reproductive modes. These insights bridge evolutionary biology, reproductive medicine, and developmental genetics. However, major gaps remain, including unresolved orthology between vertebrate and invertebrate ZP genes, the relative contribution of glycans versus protein backbone in sperm recognition, and the lack of functional evidence for canonical ZP-domain proteins in insects. Future studies integrating glycoproteomics, single-cell transcriptomics, and CRISPR-based models are needed to resolve these questions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27135866","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:55:11Z","timestamp":1782780911000},"page":"5866","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Co-Option and Conflict: The Deep Evolutionary History of ZP-Domain Proteins from ECMs to Species Barriers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Natalia","family":"Bezborodkina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1460-4108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniil","family":"Smutin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology and Programming, ITMO University, 197101 St. Petersburg, Russia"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, 119121 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Federal State Budget-Financed Educational Institution of Higher Education, The Bonch-Bruevich Saint-Petersburg State University of Telecommunications, 193232 St. Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1563-4615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonid","family":"Adonin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, 119121 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Federal State Budget-Financed Educational Institution of Higher Education, The Bonch-Bruevich Saint-Petersburg State University of Telecommunications, 193232 St. Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-genom-090711-163745","article-title":"Evolution of the egg: New findings and challenges","volume":"13","author":"Claw","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. 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