{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T16:12:35Z","timestamp":1783699955218,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783641600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), originally developed as a synthetic auxinic herbicide, is the most widely used chemical inducer of somatic embryogenesis (SE) in plants. Despite extensive use of 2,4-D in plant regeneration, the systems-level regulatory mechanisms connecting hormonal signaling, metabolic reprogramming, translational control, and embryogenic competence remain poorly resolved. Here, we hypothesize that TOR signaling functions as an integrative molecular hub coordinating transcriptional, metabolic, and developmental reprogramming during somatic embryogenesis induction. To investigate the molecular regulatory landscape associated with 2,4-D-induced SE, we performed a systems-level analysis integrating publicly available transcriptomic data from Arabidopsis thaliana with high-confidence protein\u2013protein interaction (PPI) network analyses using STRING v12.0 (confidence score \u2265 0.900). Using a previously published transcriptomic dataset, we identified 1927 upregulated genes associated with SE induction, which were organized into 34 functional modules related to transcriptional regulation, translation metabolism, hormone signaling and cellular homeostasis. Within this interactome, TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN (TOR) kinase emerged as an integrative regulatory hub associated with multiple pathways involved in embryogenic reprogramming. Network analyses revealed three major TOR-associated regulatory axes: (1) the TOR\u2013FKBP12\u2013RPS6A axis, associated with ribosome biogenesis and translational regulation; (2) the TOR\u2013CBP20 axis, connected with transcriptional reprogramming; SE master regulators (LEC1, LEC2, and FUS3); and lipid, sterol, brassinosteroid (BR), and auxin-associated pathways; and (3) the TOR\u2013TAP46 axis, linked with one-carbon metabolism, nucleotide biosynthesis, DNA replication and repair, and genome-stability pathways. Additionally, the network contained 411 embryo-lethal (EMBL) genes distributed across multiple regulatory modules, reinforcing the biological relevance of the identified interactome and highlighting the importance of coordinated developmental, metabolic, and transcriptional regulation during embryogenesis induction. These findings support a systems-level TOR-associated regulatory framework involved in the integration of transcriptional, translational, metabolic, hormonal, and genome-maintenance pathways during embryogenesis. This interactome model provides a foundation for functional studies aimed at dissecting the molecular mechanisms underlying SE and identifying candidate targets to improve regeneration and biotechnological application and crop genetic engineering. Collectively, this study proposes a mechanistic framework in which TOR signaling integrates developmental, metabolic, translational, and genome-stability pathways to orchestrate embryogenic competence, providing candidate molecular targets for improving plant regeneration and genome engineering platforms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27146191","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T15:13:36Z","timestamp":1783696416000},"page":"6191","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["TOR Signaling as a Central Integrator of Embryogenic Reprogramming During 2,4-D-Induced Somatic Embryogenesis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6142-1963","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Luis","family":"Cabrera-Ponce","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Gen\u00e9tica, PlanTECC, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato 36824, Guanajuato, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1790-9539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alex Ricardo","family":"Bermudez-Valle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biotecnologia y Bioquimica, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato 36824, Guanajuato, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2353-1384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria del Rosario","family":"C\u00e1rdenas-Aquino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Gen\u00e9tica, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato 36824, Guanajuato, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9605-8843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea Maria","family":"Navarro-Vega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria de Ingenier\u00eda Campus Guanajuato (UPIIG), Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Av. Mineral de Valenciana 200, Puerto Interior, Silao de la Victoria 36275, Guanajuato, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4334-219X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Braulio","family":"Uribe-Lopez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biotecnologia y Bioquimica, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato 36824, Guanajuato, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7827-486X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aaron","family":"Barraza-Celis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio Biotechnolgika, Ignacio Ramirez 3765, La Paz 23060, Baja California Sur, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5380-326X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eliana","family":"Valencia-Lozano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Investigaci\u00f3n Interdisciplinaria (LII), Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Unidad Le\u00f3n, Le\u00f3n de los Aldama 37684, Guanajuato, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8659-4118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisset","family":"Herrera-Isidron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria de Ingenier\u00eda Campus Guanajuato (UPIIG), Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Av. Mineral de Valenciana 200, Puerto Interior, Silao de la Victoria 36275, Guanajuato, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1093\/mp\/ssr034","article-title":"Seven Things We Think We Know about Auxin Transport","volume":"4","author":"Peer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Plant"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1515\/bchm2.1934.228.3-6.113","article-title":"Hetero-Auxin Als Stoffwechselprodukt Niederer Pflanzlicher Organismen. Isolierung Aus Hefe. 13. Mitteilung \u00dcber Pflanzliche Wachstumsstoffe","volume":"228","author":"Kostermans","year":"1934","journal-title":"Harn. Zeit. Physiol. 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