{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T03:24:32Z","timestamp":1791516272647,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn\u2019s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), are chronic inflammatory diseases resulting from complex interactions between host genetics, environmental factors, immune dysregulation, and the gut microbiome. Among environmental exposures, antibiotics have emerged as important factors of IBD risk and disease course because of their profound effects on intestinal microbial communities. This review synthesizes current evidence on the class-specific effects of antibiotics on IBD, integrating epidemiological, mechanistic, and clinical studies to examine how different antibiotic classes influence disease susceptibility, progression, and microbiome recovery. Current evidence indicates that antibiotic-associated IBD risk varies according to antibiotic class, cumulative exposure, age at exposure, and antimicrobial spectrum, with broad-spectrum and anti-anaerobic agents showing the strongest associations. Mechanistically, antibiotics promote dysbiosis by depleting beneficial commensal bacteria, disrupting microbial metabolite production, expanding pathobionts and the intestinal resistome, and impairing epithelial barrier integrity and immune homeostasis. The review also discusses microbiome-preserving and microbiome-restorative approaches, including antimicrobial stewardship, fecal microbiota transplantation, prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, and dietary interventions, as potential strategies to mitigate antibiotic-associated dysbiosis. Overall, the evidence highlights the class-specific effects of antibiotics in IBD and underscores the importance of microbiome-informed antimicrobial stewardship and precision therapeutic strategies to optimize patient outcomes while minimizing long-term disruptions of host\u2013microbiome homeostasis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27146502","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T10:48:28Z","timestamp":1784717308000},"page":"6502","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Antibiotic Class-Specific Effects on Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Microbiome Disruption, Risk, and Recovery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8878-461X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bhargavi","family":"Rajarathinam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pranav V.","family":"Nair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neeraja","family":"Murali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ganga","family":"Lekshmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abitha K.","family":"Sajeev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Archa B.","family":"Pillai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anita","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9671-3563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sreetha","family":"Hely","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kalyani","family":"Arun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0681-3427","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vidhya","family":"Prakash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bipin G.","family":"Nair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Parvathy","family":"Venugopal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rajaguru","family":"Aradhya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-014-0454-4","article-title":"The Gut Microbiota and Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"37","author":"Matsuoka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. 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