{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T04:38:06Z","timestamp":1789792686632,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":165,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784851200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bacteriophages are being revisited as programmable platforms for therapy, diagnostics, and biocontrol. Their value, however, depends on the setting. Therapeutic phages must do more than lyse bacteria in vitro: they need to reach infection sites, persist long enough to act, reduce bacterial burden, and limit resistance under clinically relevant conditions. Diagnostic platforms are judged by another standard, including sensitivity, specificity, matrix tolerance, and stable signal readout. Food, agricultural, and environmental applications instead rely on formulation stability, host specificity, scalable delivery, and ecological safety. This review summarizes the biological and engineering principles that support phage-based platforms, and then evaluates therapeutic, diagnostic, and nonclinical uses through an application-specific evidence framework. For therapy, we focus on evidence hierarchy, active phage exposure, immune clearance, persistence, infection spread, and host-resistance-bypass phenotypes. Recent studies on high-persistence and hyper-aggressive phages suggest that dissemination, plaque expansion, and resistance-bypass behavior should be considered during early candidate selection. Phage cocktails, antibiotic combinations, and engineered phages remain useful, but they should be treated as adaptive strategies rather than universal solutions. Overall, phage technologies require validation frameworks that link biological function with manufacturing quality, regulatory feasibility, and meaningful clinical or environmental endpoints.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27156615","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T09:47:41Z","timestamp":1785145661000},"page":"6615","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Bacteriophage-Based Therapeutic, Diagnostic, and Biocontrol Platforms: Engineering, Evidence, and Translational Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Nan","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Women\u2019s Hospital School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yingli","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Women\u2019s Hospital School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Women\u2019s Hospital School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4560-6861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yao","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Women\u2019s Hospital School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1588-242X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caihong","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Women\u2019s Hospital School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01867-1","article-title":"Global Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance 1990\u20132021: A Systematic Analysis with Forecasts to 2050","volume":"404","author":"Naghavi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofaf695.022","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf695.022","article-title":"549. A Phase 2a Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial of the Efficacy and Safety of an Intravenous (IV) Bacteriophage Cocktail (AP-SA02) vs. Placebo in Combination with Best Available Antibiotic Therapy (BAT) in Patients with Complicated Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia","volume":"13","author":"Miller","year":"2026","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac453","article-title":"Phage Therapy of Mycobacterium Infections: Compassionate Use of Phages in 20 Patients with Drug-Resistant Mycobacterial Disease","volume":"76","author":"Dedrick","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115629","article-title":"Paper-Based Analytical Device Integrated with Bacteriophage Tail Fiber Protein for Bacteria Detection and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test","volume":"239","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02014-24","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.02014-24","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas9 Enables Efficient Genome Engineering of the Strictly Lytic, Broad-Host-Range Staphylococcal Bacteriophage K","volume":"91","author":"Fernbach","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2015.06.006","article-title":"Bacteriophage Cocktail Significantly Reduces or Eliminates Listeria monocytogenes Contamination on Lettuce, Apples, Cheese, Smoked Salmon and Frozen Foods","volume":"52","author":"Perera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"OmniLytics Inc. (2005). AgriPhageTM: First EPA-Registered Bacteriophage Biopesticide, OmniLytics Inc."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"U.S. FDA (2014). GRAS Notice No. GRN 000528: Listeria monocytogenes Phage Preparation (ListShieldTM\/LMP-102)."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"U.S. FDA (2013). GRAS Notice No. GRN 000435: Preparation Consisting of Six Bacterial Monophages Specific to Salmonella enterica (SalmoFreshTM), USDA FSIS Directive 7120.1."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"U.S. FDA (2019). GRAS Notice No. GRN 000834: E. coli Phage Preparation (EcoShieldTM PX), Including Expanded Use in Grain and Grain Products."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"U.S. FDA (2017). GRAS Notice No. GRN 000672: Shigella Phage Preparation (ShigaShieldTM)."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"PhageGuard (2026, May 16). Approvals. Available online: https:\/\/phageguard.com\/approvals."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Cytophage Technologies (2026, May 16). Cytophage Secures Health Canada Letters for OvaPhage and PhageFend Products for Use in Food Safety. Available online: https:\/\/cytophage.com\/news\/cytophage-secures-health-canada-validation-for-ovaphage-and-phagefend-products-for-use-in-food-safety\/."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Intralytix (2026, May 16). Intralytix Receives FDA CVM Approval for Salmonella-Targeting Phage Preparation for Use in Pet Food Applications. Available online: https:\/\/www.intralytix.com\/article\/123?e=Intralytix-Receives-FDA-CVM-Approval-for-%3Ci%3ESalmonella%3C%2Fi%3E-Targeting-Phage-Preparation-for-Use-in-Pet-Food-Applications."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019). AgriPhage Pesticide Product Label, EPA Reg. No. 67986-1."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_16.1","unstructured":"European Commission, and EFTA (2025). Commission Implementing Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_16.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2025\/1390 of 15 July 2025 Concerning the Authorisation of a Preparation of the Bacteriophages PCM F\/00069, PCM F\/00070, PCM F\/00071 and PCM F\/00097 as a Feed Additive for Poultry (Holder of Authorisation: Proteon Pharmaceuticals S.A.)."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Armata Pharmaceuticals (2026, May 16). AP-SA02: Staphylococcus aureus Phage Product Candidate. Available online: https:\/\/www.armatapharma.com\/pipeline\/ap-sa02\/."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Armata Pharmaceuticals (2026, May 16). AP-PA02: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Phage Product Candidate. ClinicalTrials.Gov NCT04596319 and NCT05616221. Available online: https:\/\/www.armatapharma.com\/pipeline\/ap-pa02\/."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2025.101257","article-title":"Safety, Recovery, and Pharmacodynamics of CRISPR\u2013Cas Therapeutic SNIPR001: A Phase 1, Randomised, Double-Blind, First-in-Human, Dose-Escalation Study","volume":"7","author":"Petersen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(24)00424-9","article-title":"Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics of LBP-EC01, a CRISPR-Cas3-Enhanced Bacteriophage Cocktail, in Uncomplicated Urinary Tract Infections Due to Escherichia coli (ELIMINATE): The Randomised, Open-Label, First Part of a Two-Part Phase 2 Trial","volume":"24","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"BiomX Inc. (2026, June 12). BiomX Reports Second Quarter 2025 Financial Results and Provides Program Updates. Available online: https:\/\/ir.biomx.com\/news-releases\/news-release-details\/biomx-reports-second-quarter-2025-financial-results-and-provides."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"BiomX Inc. (2026, June 12). BiomX Announces Discontinuation of Phase 2b BX004 Trial Following Internal Review. Available online: https:\/\/ir.biomx.com\/news-releases\/news-release-details\/biomx-announces-discontinuation-phase-2b-bx004-trial-following."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Microgen Sextaphage\u00ae (2026, May 16). Polyvalent Pyobacteriophage. Product Information. Available online: https:\/\/microgen.ru\/en\/products\/bakteriofagi\/sekstafag-piobakteriofag-polivalentnyy\/."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Eliava BioPreparations (2026, May 16). Phago-Pyo and Phago-Intesti Bacteriophage Product Information; Paratherapeutic Phage Products Manufactured by Eliava Biopreparations LLC. Available online: https:\/\/phage.ge\/en\/products."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30482-1","article-title":"Efficacy and Tolerability of a Cocktail of Bacteriophages to Treat Burn Wounds Infected by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PhagoBurn): A Randomised, Controlled, Double-Blind Phase 1\/2 Trial","volume":"19","author":"Jault","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoto.2019.1191","article-title":"Safety and Tolerability of Bacteriophage Therapy for Chronic Rhinosinusitis Due to Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"145","author":"Ooi","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Otolaryngol.\u2013Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medj.2024.11.018","article-title":"Randomized Double-Blind Study on Safety and Tolerability of TP-102 Phage Cocktail in Patients with Infected and Non-Infected Diabetic Foot Ulcers","volume":"6","author":"Onallah","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20210799","article-title":"Tall Tails: Cryo-Electron Microscopy of Phage Tail DNA Ejection Conduits","volume":"50","author":"Hardy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-022-05694-2","article-title":"Abolishment of Morphology-Based Taxa and Change to Binomial Species Names: 2022 Taxonomy Update of the ICTV Bacterial Viruses Subcommittee","volume":"168","author":"Turner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, L., Goldobina, E., Govi, B., and Shkoporov, A.N. (2023). Bacteriophages of the Order Crassvirales: What Do We Currently Know about This Keystone Component of the Human Gut Virome?. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13040584"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2419798121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2419798121","article-title":"Adaptive Expression of Phage Auxiliary Metabolic Genes in Paddy Soils and Their Contribution toward Global Carbon Sequestration","volume":"121","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2023.127461","article-title":"Acquisition, Loss, and Replication of Functional Modules Promote the Genetic Diversity of Salmonella Bacteriophages","volume":"275","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2799","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-020-04822-0","article-title":"Characterization and Genome Analysis of Klebsiella Phage P509, with Lytic Activity against Clinical Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae of the KL64 Capsular Type","volume":"165","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20576","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2005218117","article-title":"Revealing the Mechanism of Repressor Inactivation during Switching of a Temperate Bacteriophage","volume":"117","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/mvaa080","article-title":"Studies on the Gene Regulation Involved in the Lytic\u2013Lysogenic Switch in Staphylococcus aureus Temperate Bacteriophage Phi11","volume":"168","author":"Das","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00203-23","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00203-23","article-title":"Characterization of Mu-like Yersinia Phages Exhibiting Temperature Dependent Infection","volume":"11","author":"Meng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadx5749","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adx5749","article-title":"Bacteriophages Mobilize Bacterial Defense Systems via Lateral Transduction","volume":"12","author":"Kuang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taslem Mourosi, J., Awe, A., Guo, W., Batra, H., Ganesh, H., Wu, X., and Zhu, J. (2022). Understanding Bacteriophage Tail Fiber Interaction with Host Surface Receptor: The Key \u201cBlueprint\u201d for Reprogramming Phage Host Range. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232012146"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30763","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M113.501536","article-title":"Assessing the Conformational Changes of Pb5, the Receptor-Binding Protein of Phage T5, upon Binding to Its Escherichia coli Receptor FhuA","volume":"288","author":"Breyton","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00810-25","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.00810-25","article-title":"Polyvalent Phage GSP004 Recognizes O-Antigen Polysaccharide Receptors in Salmonella and Escherichia coli through Tail Fiber Protein ORF208","volume":"99","author":"Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burke, K.A., Peters, T.L., Kirillina, O.A., Urick, C.D., Walton, B.D., Bird, J.T., Mzhavia, N., Georges, M.O., Lertsethtakarn, P., and Musila, L.A. (2025). Phage Host Range Expansion through Directed Evolution on Highly Phage-Resistant Strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202507.0366.v1"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-019-0299-x","article-title":"Evolutionary Classification of CRISPR\u2013Cas Systems: A Burst of Class 2 and Derived Variants","volume":"18","author":"Makarova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20240074","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2024.0074","article-title":"Specificity and Mechanism of tRNA Cleavage by the AriB Toprim Nuclease of the Paris Bacterial Immune System","volume":"380","author":"Belukhina","year":"2025","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-biochem-011420-111224","article-title":"Anti-CRISPRs: Protein Inhibitors of CRISPR-Cas Systems","volume":"89","author":"Davidson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6920","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky544","article-title":"A Functional Type II-a CRISPR\u2013Cas System from Listeria Enables Efficient Genome Editing of Large Non-Integrating Bacteriophage","volume":"46","author":"Hupfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ysae012","DOI":"10.1093\/synbio\/ysae012","article-title":"Cell-Free Synthesis of Infective Phages from In Vitro Assembled Phage Genomes for Efficient Phage Engineering and Production of Large Phage Libraries","volume":"9","author":"Kristensen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Synth. Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2036","DOI":"10.1021\/acssynbio.1c00525","article-title":"Rapid 40 Kb Genome Construction from 52 Parts through Data-Optimized Assembly Design","volume":"11","author":"Pryor","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Synth. Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, J.D., Parks, A.R., Adhya, S., Rattray, A.J., and Court, D.L. (2020). \u03bb Recombineering Used to Engineer the Genome of Phage T7. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9110805"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03582-24","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.03582-24","article-title":"Programming Virulent Bacteriophages by Developing a Multiplex Genome Engineering Method","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1967","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-022-01258-x","article-title":"Broad-Spectrum CRISPR-Cas13a Enables Efficient Phage Genome Editing","volume":"7","author":"Adler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-022-01243-4","article-title":"Bacteriophage Genome Engineering with CRISPR\u2013Cas13a","volume":"7","author":"Guan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-3798-2_8","article-title":"Targeted Genome Editing of Virulent Pseudomonas Phages Using CRISPR-Cas3","volume":"Volume 2793","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phage Engineering and Analysis"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-3523-0_17","article-title":"Synthetic Biology to Engineer Bacteriophage Genomes","volume":"Volume 2734","author":"Azeredo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bacteriophage Therapy"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Engler, C., Kandzia, R., and Marillonnet, S. (2008). A One Pot, One Step, Precision Cloning Method with High Throughput Capability. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0003647"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-46585-1","article-title":"PHEIGES: All-Cell-Free Phage Synthesis and Selection from Engineered Genomes","volume":"15","author":"Levrier","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4037","DOI":"10.1021\/acssynbio.5c00450","article-title":"Computational Pipeline for Targeted Integration and Variable Payload Expression in Bacteriophage Engineering","volume":"14","author":"Fernbach","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Synth. Biol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.3315.47","article-title":"The Bacteriophage in the Treatment of Typhoid Fever","volume":"2","author":"Smith","year":"1924","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1946.02870380016006","article-title":"Treatment of Typhoid Fever with Type Specific Bacteriophage: Preliminary Report","volume":"132","author":"Knouf","year":"1946","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-29-1-131","article-title":"Preliminary Report on the Beneficial Effect of Chloromycetin in the Treatment of Typhoid Fever","volume":"29","author":"Woodward","year":"1948","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1494","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-025-03678-8","article-title":"Personalized Inhaled Bacteriophage Therapy for Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Cystic Fibrosis","volume":"31","author":"Chan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0437-z","article-title":"Engineered Bacteriophages for Treatment of a Patient with a Disseminated Drug-Resistant Mycobacterium Abscessus","volume":"25","author":"Dedrick","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paul, K., Merabishvili, M., Hazan, R., Christner, M., Herden, U., Gelman, D., Khalifa, L., Yerushalmy, O., Coppenhagen-Glazer, S., and Harbauer, T. (2021). Bacteriophage Rescue Therapy of a Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus faecium Infection in a One-Year-Old Child Following a Third Liver Transplantation. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13091785"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schoeffel, J., Wang, E.W., Gill, D., Frackler, J., Horne, B., Manson, T., and Doub, J.B. (2022). Successful Use of Salvage Bacteriophage Therapy for a Recalcitrant MRSA Knee and Hip Prosthetic Joint Infection. Pharmaceuticals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph15020177"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2024.107220","article-title":"Phage Therapy Combats Pan Drug-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Infection Safely and Efficiently","volume":"64","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4500","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-59806-y","article-title":"Adjunctive Phage Therapy Improves Antibiotic Treatment of Ventilator-Associated-Pneumonia with Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"16","author":"Weissfuss","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2993","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-47192-w","article-title":"Phage-Specific Immunity Impairs Efficacy of Bacteriophage Targeting Vancomycin Resistant Enterococcus in a Murine Model","volume":"15","author":"Berkson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2015.12.023","article-title":"Oral Phage Therapy of Acute Bacterial Diarrhea with Two Coliphage Preparations: A Randomized Trial in Children from Bangladesh","volume":"4","author":"Sarker","year":"2016","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00954-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00954-17","article-title":"Development and Use of Personalized Bacteriophage-Based Therapeutic Cocktails To Treat a Patient with a Disseminated Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Infection","volume":"61","author":"Schooley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3776","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-31455-5","article-title":"Comparative Genomics of Acinetobacter baumannii and Therapeutic Bacteriophages from a Patient Undergoing Phage Therapy","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30330-3","article-title":"Intravesical Bacteriophages for Treating Urinary Tract Infections in Patients Undergoing Transurethral Resection of the Prostate: A Randomised, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Clinical Trial","volume":"21","author":"Leitner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e181309","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.181309","article-title":"The Contribution of Neutrophils to Bacteriophage Clearance and Pharmacokinetics In Vivo","volume":"9","author":"Echterhof","year":"2024","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serwer, P., Wright, E.T., De La Chapa, J., and Gonzales, C.B. (2021). Basics for Improved Use of Phages for Therapy. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10060723"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.110825","article-title":"Combination of in Vivo Phage Therapy Data with in Silico Model Highlights Key Parameters for Pneumonia Treatment Efficacy","volume":"39","author":"Delattre","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"1096-1111.e6","article-title":"Neutralizing Antibodies after Nebulized Phage Therapy in Cystic Fibrosis Patients","volume":"5","author":"Chan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-024-00552-2","article-title":"Combination of Bacteriophages and Vancomycin in a Co-Delivery Hydrogel for Localized Treatment of Fracture-Related Infections","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rojero, M., Weaver-Rosen, M., and Serwer, P. (2025). Bypassing Evolution of Bacterial Resistance to Phages: The Example of Hyper-Aggressive Phage 0524phi7-1. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26072914"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rojero, M., Weaver-Rosen, M., and Serwer, P. (2025). Reply to Abedon, S.T. Dual-Receptor Recognition, Lysis Inhibition, Endolysin Release, and Reaction\u2013Diffusion as Alternative Explanations. Comment on \u201cRojero et al. Bypassing Evolution of Bacterial Resistance to Phages: The Example of Hyper-Aggressive Phage 0524phi7-1. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26, 2914\u201d. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311468"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abedon, S.T. (2025). Dual-Receptor Recognition, Lysis Inhibition, Endolysin Release, and Reaction\u2013Diffusion as Alternative Explanations. Comment on Rojero et al. Bypassing Evolution of Bacterial Resistance to Phages: The Example of Hyper-Aggressive Phage 0524phi7-1. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26, 2914. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311368"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2021.105374","article-title":"A Phage Cocktail in Controlling Phage Resistance Development in Multidrug Resistant Aeromonas hydrophila with Great Therapeutic Potential","volume":"162","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marchi, J., Minh, C.N.N., Debarbieux, L., and Weitz, J.S. (2025). Multi-Strain Phage Induced Clearance of Bacterial Infections. PLoS Comput. Biol., 21.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012793"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02095-25","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.02095-25","article-title":"Phage Cocktails Containing a Dual-Receptor Phikzvirus Suppress Resistance Evolution in Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"92","author":"Fujiki","year":"2026","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vashisth, M., Jaglan, A.B., Yashveer, S., Sharma, P., Bardajatya, P., Virmani, N., Bera, B.C., Vaid, R.K., and Anand, T. (2023). Development and Evaluation of Bacteriophage Cocktail to Eradicate Biofilms Formed by an Extensively Drug-Resistant (XDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15020427"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04918-22","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.04918-22","article-title":"Optimization of Phage-Antibiotic Combinations against Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms","volume":"11","author":"Kebriaei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-026-05839-8","article-title":"Hospital-Adapted Inhaled Phage Therapy for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia Caused by Multidrug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae: A Comparative Pilot Study","volume":"30","author":"Gorodnichev","year":"2026","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz-Cartagena, C., Blasco, L., Bleriot, I., Esteban, J., Del Toro, M.D., Del Pozo, J.L., and Tom\u00e1s, M. (2025). Phage Therapy for Bone and Joint Infections: Towards Clinical Translation. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14121187"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.4.1301-1307.2003","article-title":"Use of Genetically Engineered Phage To Deliver Antimicrobial Agents to Bacteria: An Alternative Therapy for Treatment of Bacterial Infections","volume":"47","author":"Westwater","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11197","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0704624104","article-title":"Dispersing Biofilms with Engineered Enzymatic Bacteriophage","volume":"104","author":"Lu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2024.107221","article-title":"Bacteriophage-Resistant Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Shows Reduced Antibiotic Resistance and Virulence","volume":"64","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1988-2003.e8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2024.09.004","article-title":"Rapid Design of Bacteriophage Cocktails to Suppress the Burden and Virulence of Gut-Resident Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae","volume":"32","author":"Rotman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Avramucz, \u00c1., M\u00f8ller-Olsen, C., Grigonyte, A.M., Paramalingam, Y., Millard, A., Sagona, A.P., and Feh\u00e9r, T. (2021). Analysing Parallel Strategies to Alter the Host Specificity of Bacteriophage T7. Biology, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology10060556"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00427-23","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00427-23","article-title":"Selective Bacteriophages Reduce the Emergence of Resistant Bacteria in Bacteriophage-Antibiotic Combination Therapy","volume":"12","author":"Azam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01462-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01462-20","article-title":"Phage-Antibiotic Synergy Is Driven by a Unique Combination of Antibacterial Mechanism of Action and Stoichiometry","volume":"11","author":"Green","year":"2020","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4629","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0800442106","article-title":"Engineered Bacteriophage Targeting Gene Networks as Adjuvants for Antibiotic Therapy","volume":"106","author":"Lu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01393-24","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.01393-24","article-title":"Phage-Antibiotic Synergy Suppresses Resistance Emergence of Klebsiella pneumoniae by Altering the Evolutionary Fitness","volume":"15","author":"Qin","year":"2024","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.21270","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of Topical Bacteriophage and Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Infection in a Sheep Model of Sinusitis","volume":"4","author":"Drilling","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-024-01705-x","article-title":"Personalized Bacteriophage Therapy Outcomes for 100 Consecutive Cases: A Multicentre, Multinational, Retrospective Observational Study","volume":"9","author":"Pirnay","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03396-23","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.03396-23","article-title":"Bacteriophage and Antibiotic Combination Therapy for Recurrent Enterococcus faecium Bacteremia","volume":"15","author":"Stellfox","year":"2024","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268899003349","article-title":"A Five Year Outbreak of Methicillin-Susceptible Staphylococcus aureus Phage Type 53,85 in a Regional Neonatal Unit","volume":"124","author":"Wilcox","year":"2000","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2025.117622","article-title":"Ultrasensitive Quantification of Aflatoxin B1 via Nanobody Phage -Mediated Quantitative PCR and Digital PCR for Agro-Products","volume":"286","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Z., Liu, B., Li, D., Yu, Z., and Gan, N. (2023). Dual-Mode Biosensor for Simultaneous and Rapid Detection of Live and Whole Salmonella typhimurium Based on Bioluminescence and Fluorescence Detection. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13030401"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1080\/10826068.2018.1466154","article-title":"Rapid Label-Free Detection of E. coli Using a Novel SPR Biosensor Containing a Fragment of Tail Protein from Phage Lambda","volume":"48","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prep. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, W., Wang, H., Yang, X., Ullah, M.W., Hussain, J., Ullah, N., Ul-Islam, M., Awad, M.F., and Wang, S. (2024). Ultrasensitive Electrochemical Detection of Salmonella typhimurium in Food Matrices Using Surface-Modified Bacterial Cellulose with Immobilized Phage Particles. Biosensors, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14100500"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioelechem.2022.108345","article-title":"Development of a Phage-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for Detection of Escherichia coli O157: H7 GXEC-N07","volume":"150","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioelechem.2025.109212","article-title":"Phage-Based Dual-Mode Sensor Using ECL and EIS for Sensitive Detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"169","author":"Allahyari","year":"2026","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2023.134179","article-title":"User-Friendly, Signal-Enhanced Planar Spiral Coil-Based Magnetoelastic Biosensor Combined with Humidity-Resistant Phages for Simultaneous Detection of Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on Fresh Produce","volume":"393","author":"Choi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2024.112471","article-title":"Microfluidic Dual-Mode Detection System for Multiple Foodborne Pathogens Using Phage-Aptamer-DNAzyme Composite Encoded Probes","volume":"208","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2023.341591","article-title":"Tesla Valve-Assisted Biosensor for Dual-Mode and Dual-Target Simultaneous Determination of Foodborne Pathogens Based on Phage\/DNAzyme Co-Modified Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-Encoded Probes","volume":"1275","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2024.116061","article-title":"Lateral Flow Immunoassay Based on Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Using pH-Induced Phage-Templated Hierarchical Plasmonic Assembly for Point-of-Care Diagnosis of Infectious Disease","volume":"250","author":"Jeon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1039\/D2AN01499H","article-title":"Smartphone-Read Phage Lateral Flow Assay for Point-of-Care Detection of Infection","volume":"148","author":"Chabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10088","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.4c11893","article-title":"Recombinase-Controlled Multiphase Condensates Accelerate Nucleic Acid Amplification and CRISPR-Based Diagnostics","volume":"147","author":"Homchan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28083","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.5c02356","article-title":"From Lab to Clinical Application: Establishing a \u201cGold\u201d Touchstone for Lung Cancer Biomarker-CEA to Advance Diagnostic","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2006). Food Additives Permitted for Direct Addition to Food for Human Consumption; Bacteriophage Preparation. Fed. Regist., 71, 47729\u201347732."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, July 21). 21 CFR \u00a7 172.785\u2014Listeria-Specific Bacteriophage Preparation, Available online: https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-172\/section-172.785."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, July 21). GRAS Notice No. 435: Additional Correspondence Regarding an Additional Intended Use, 13 February 2015, Available online: https:\/\/hfpappexternal.fda.gov\/scripts\/fdcc\/index.cfm?id=435&set=GRASNotices."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berhilevych, O., Peh, E., Vahle, J.C., Pl\u00f6tz, M., and Kittler, S. (2026). Phage-Based Biocontrol of Salmonella and E. coli in Raw Chicken Filets: Optimizing Phage-Based Solutions to Enhance Food Safety under Cooled Storing Conditions. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1696826"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pev332","article-title":"Reduction of Salmonella on Chicken Breast Fillets Stored under Aerobic or Modified Atmosphere Packaging by the Application of Lytic Bacteriophage Preparation SalmoFreshTM","volume":"95","author":"Sukumaran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2015.11.025","article-title":"Biocontrol of Listeria monocytogenes in Fish by Enterocin AS-48 and Listeria Lytic Bacteriophage P100","volume":"66","author":"Maqueda","year":"2016","journal-title":"LWT\u2014Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomat, D., Aquili, V., Casabonne, C., and Quiberoni, A. (2022). Influence of Physicochemical Factors on Adsorption of Ten Shigella flexneri Phages. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14122815"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (Biohaz) (2016). Evaluation of the Safety and Efficacy of ListexTM P100 for Reduction of Pathogens on Different Ready-to-Eat (RTE) Food Products. EFSA J., 14, e04565.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2016.4565"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1094\/PDIS.2003.87.8.949","article-title":"Improved Efficacy of Newly Formulated Bacteriophages for Management of Bacterial Spot on Tomato","volume":"87","author":"Balogh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Plant Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.5423\/PPJ.OA.01.2024.0005","article-title":"Bacteriophage Cocktail Comprising Fifi044 and Fifi318 for Biocontrol of Erwinia amylovora","volume":"40","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Plant Pathol. J."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-023-01463-8","article-title":"Rhizosphere Phage Communities Drive Soil Suppressiveness to Bacterial Wilt Disease","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01598-25","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.01598-25","article-title":"Impact of Phage Treatment on Fire Blight Disease Outcome and Floral Microbiome Composition","volume":"91","author":"Holtappels","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2007.04.006","article-title":"Efficient Method for Generation of Bacteriophage Insensitive Mutants of Streptococcus thermophilus Yoghurt and Mozzarella Strains","volume":"70","author":"Mills","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4491","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-31934-9","article-title":"Systematic Strategies for Developing Phage Resistant Escherichia coli Strains","volume":"13","author":"Zou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Millen, A.M., Horvath, P., Boyaval, P., and Romero, D.A. (2012). Mobile CRISPR\/Cas-Mediated Bacteriophage Resistance in Lactococcus lactis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0051663"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.25574","article-title":"Bacteriophage Therapy for Membrane Biofouling in Membrane Bioreactors and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Biofilms","volume":"112","author":"Bhattacharjee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2010.08.038","article-title":"Biocontrol of Biomass Bulking Caused by Haliscomenobacter hydrossis Using a Newly Isolated Lytic Bacteriophage","volume":"45","author":"Kotay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2390720","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2024.2390720","article-title":"Role of Bacteriophages in Shaping Gut Microbial Community","volume":"16","author":"Mahmud","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.20517\/mrr.2023.20","article-title":"Lytic Bacteriophages Affect the Population Dynamics of Multi-Strain Microbial Communities","volume":"2","author":"Spus","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiome Res. Rep."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40793-022-00410-8","article-title":"Heterogeneity of Soil Bacterial and Bacteriophage Communities in Three Rice Agroecosystems and Potential Impacts of Bacteriophage on Nutrient Cycling","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2025.126998","article-title":"Impact of Bacteriophage MS2 Adsorption on Biofilm Microbial Communities, Metabolic Pathways, and Protein Expression in Sewer Systems","volume":"393","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01101-23","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01101-23","article-title":"Bacteriophages Limitedly Contribute to the Antimicrobial Resistome of Microbial Communities in Wastewater Treatment Plants","volume":"11","author":"Sabatino","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-3523-0_6","article-title":"Bacteriophage Production in Compliance with Regulatory Requirements","volume":"Volume 2734","author":"Azeredo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bacteriophage Therapy"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-021-01549-8","article-title":"Strategy for Mass Production of Lytic Staphylococcus aureus Bacteriophage pSa-3: Contribution of Multiplicity of Infection and Response Surface Methodology","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s40643-024-00760-w","article-title":"Co-Production of 1,3-Propanediol and Phage phiKpS2 from the Glycerol Fermentation by Klebsiella pneumoniae","volume":"11","author":"Duan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioresour. Bioprocess."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2025.465890","article-title":"Scalable Purification of Bacteriophages Preparations","volume":"1749","author":"Saavedra","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120200","article-title":"Phage Cocktail Powder for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Respiratory Infections","volume":"596","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015aliwka, P., Skaradzi\u0144ski, G., Dusza, I., Grzywacz, A., and Skaradzi\u0144ska, A. (2023). Freeze-Drying of Encapsulated Bacteriophage T4 to Obtain Shelf-Stable Dry Preparations for Oral Application. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15122792"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaldastanishvili, E., Leshkasheli, L., Dadiani, M., Nadareishvili, L., Askilashvili, L., Kvatadze, N., Goderdzishvili, M., Kutateladze, M., and Balarjishvili, N. (2021). Phage Therapy Experience at the Eliava Phage Therapy Center: Three Cases of Bacterial Persistence. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13101901"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofaa389","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa389","article-title":"Lessons Learned from the First 10 Consecutive Cases of Intravenous Bacteriophage Therapy to Treat Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Infections at a Single Center in the United States","volume":"7","author":"Aslam","year":"2020","journal-title":"OPEN Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pirnay, J.-P., Verbeken, G., Ceyssens, P.-J., Huys, I., De Vos, D., Ameloot, C., and Fauconnier, A. (2018). The Magistral Phage. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10020064"},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"Federal Agency for Medicines and Health Products (2026, May 10). Therapeutic Magistral Form, Available online: https:\/\/www.famhp.be\/en\/human_use\/medicines\/medicines\/distribution_delivery\/Therapeutic_Magistral_Form."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Djebara, S., Maussen, C., De Vos, D., Merabishvili, M., Damanet, B., Pang, K.W., De Leenheer, P., Strachinaru, I., Soentjens, P., and Pirnay, J.-P. (2019). Processing Phage Therapy Requests in a Brussels Military Hospital: Lessons Identified. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11030265"},{"key":"ref_145","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, May 10). For Physicians: How to Request Single Patient Expanded Access (\u201cCompassionate Use\u201d), Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/drugs\/investigational-new-drug-ind-application\/physicians-how-request-single-patient-expanded-access-compassionate-use."},{"key":"ref_146","unstructured":"U.S. Food And Drug Administration (2021). Science and Regulation of Bacteriophage Therapy."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e065401","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-065401","article-title":"Standardised Treatment and Monitoring Protocol to Assess Safety and Tolerability of Bacteriophage Therapy for Adult and Paediatric Patients (STAMP Study): Protocol for an Open-Label, Single-Arm Trial","volume":"12","author":"Khatami","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_148","unstructured":"Therapeutic Goods Administration (2026, May 10). Bacteriophages, Available online: https:\/\/www.tga.gov.au\/products\/unapproved-therapeutic-goods\/bacteriophages."},{"key":"ref_149","unstructured":"Agence Nationale de S\u00e9curit\u00e9 du M\u00e9dicament et des Produits de Sant\u00e9 (2026, May 10). Bact\u00e9riophages Anti-Staphylococcus aureus PP1493, Solution Injectable & Bact\u00e9riophages Anti-Staphylococcus aureus PP1815, Solution Injectable, Available online: https:\/\/ansm.sante.fr\/tableau-acces-derogatoire\/bacteriophages-anti-staphylococcus-aureus-pp1493-solution-injectable-bacteriophages-anti-staphylococcus-aureus-pp1815-solution-injectable."},{"key":"ref_150","unstructured":"Agence Nationale de S\u00e9curit\u00e9 du M\u00e9dicament et des Produits de Sant\u00e9 (2026, May 10). Obtenir Facilement de l\u2019information sur les M\u00e9dicaments qui B\u00e9n\u00e9ficient d\u2019un Acc\u00e8s D\u00e9rogatoire, Available online: https:\/\/ansm.sante.fr\/actualites\/obtenir-facilement-de-linformation-sur-les-medicaments-qui-beneficient-dun-acces-derogatoire-acces-precoce-ou-compassionnel."},{"key":"ref_151","unstructured":"George Eliava Institute of Bacteriophages, Microbiology and Virology (2026, May 10). Bacterial Strain and Phage Collection. Available online: https:\/\/eliava-institute.org\/en\/phages."},{"key":"ref_152","unstructured":"Eliava Phage Therapy Center (2026, May 10). Advanced Phage Therapy Treatment for Complex Infections. Available online: https:\/\/eptc.ge\/."},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences (2026, May 10). Phage Therapy Unit. Available online: https:\/\/hirszfeld.pl\/en\/structure\/iitd-pan-medical-center\/phage-therapy-unit\/."},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"68","article-title":"Scientific interpretation on \u201cmanagement of medical technology clinical application\u201d","volume":"36","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soft Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e251","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.251","article-title":"Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products in China: Regulation and Development","volume":"4","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_156","unstructured":"UK House of Commons Science And Technology Committee (2024). The Antimicrobial Potential of Bacteriophages, House of Commons."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.1007\/s10123-024-00508-8","article-title":"Preclinical Characterization and in Silico Safety Assessment of Three Virulent Bacteriophages Targeting Carbapenem-Resistant Uropathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"27","author":"Dhungana","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_158","first-page":"vbaf004","article-title":"Sphae: An Automated Toolkit for Predicting Phage Therapy Candidates from Sequencing Data","volume":"5","author":"Papudeshi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioinf. Adv."},{"key":"ref_159","first-page":"840","article-title":"Bacteriophages Targeting Adherent Invasive Escherichia coli Strains as a Promising New Treatment for Crohn\u2019s Disease","volume":"11","author":"Galtier","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_160","first-page":"391","article-title":"A Bacteriophage Cocktail Targeting Escherichia coli Reduces E. coli in Simulated Gut Conditions, While Preserving a Non-Targeted Representative Commensal Normal Microbiota","volume":"9","author":"Cieplak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzales, M.E.M., Ureta, J.C., and Shrestha, A.M.S. (2023). Protein Embeddings Improve Phage-Host Interaction Prediction. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.02.26.530154"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bbae010","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbae010","article-title":"PB-LKS: A Python Package for Predicting Phage\u2013Bacteria Interaction through Local K-Mer Strategy","volume":"25","author":"Qiu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinf."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9987","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-53994-9","article-title":"A Blueprint for Broadly Effective Bacteriophage-Antibiotic Cocktails against Bacterial Infections","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9088","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-59866-y","article-title":"An Effective Antibiofilm Strategy Based on Bacteriophages Armed with Silver Nanoparticles","volume":"14","author":"Szymczak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/15\/6615\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T04:20:43Z","timestamp":1785298843000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/15\/6615"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]]},"references-count":165,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27156615"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27156615","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]]}}}