{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T15:01:26Z","timestamp":1785250886328,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":148,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The clinical paradigm distinguishing chronic atopic dermatitis (AD) from acute bacterial infections is established by the emerging evidence which focuses on persistent innate immune memory as a central pathobiological factor mediating inflammatory skin diseases. While AD is classically defined by genetic susceptibility and epidermal barrier failure, progression of deep dermal Staphylococcus aureus invasion, which is characteristic of bacterial infections like cellulitis, implies a significant acute infectious condition resulting in significant tissue damage, which drives extensive innate immune reprogramming. Recent studies have established a bidirectional relationship between these conditions, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms remain undefined. However, trained immunity, governed by epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming, has now emerged as a critical mediator of this interaction. This review attempts to explore the molecular foundations of trained immunity as a mechanistic link between acute infectious conditions and chronic skin inflammation. The critical involvement of bacterial virulence factors and pattern recognition receptor signalling pathways, which instigate persistent innate memory, predisposes the tissue to recurrent infections and aggravated inflammatory responses. Furthermore, the persistent involvement of innate immune reprogramming in facilitating a mechanistic continuum between cellulitis and chronic dysregulation, characteristic of atopic dermatitis, is discussed. In continuum, we propose emphasising emerging therapeutic strategies targeting epigenetic checkpoints and metabolic rewiring to develop novel immunomodulatory interventions to combat infectious and inflammatory skin disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27156760","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T14:37:00Z","timestamp":1785249420000},"page":"6760","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Epithelial-Dermal Immune Memory: Tracking Staphylococcus aureus-Induced Trained Immunity in the Progression of Chronic Skin Inflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0681-3427","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vidhya","family":"Prakash","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shivani Chalil","family":"Velluva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shiv Shankar","family":"Sreekumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nidhi","family":"Jayaprakash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nandana S.","family":"Pillai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noura","family":"Nizar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikita","family":"Arun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kalyani","family":"Arun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Aslam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nidhisha Babysulatha","family":"Sasidharan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Parvathy","family":"Venugopal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aparna","family":"Shankar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Excellence in Microbiome, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum 695585, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bipin G.","family":"Nair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Clappana P.O, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Netea, M.G., Joosten, L.A.B., Latz, E., Mills, K.H.G., Natoli, G., Stunnenberg, H.G., O\u2019Neill, L.A.J., and Xavier, R.J. (2016). Trained Immunity: A Program of Innate Immune Memory in Health and Disease. Science, 352.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaf1098"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Qu, L., Mijakovic, I., and Wei, Y. (2022). Advances in the Human Skin Microbiota and Its Roles in Cutaneous Diseases. Microb. Cell Fact., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-022-01901-6"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0285-6","article-title":"Defining Trained Immunity and Its Role in Health and Disease","volume":"20","author":"Netea","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gres, V., G\u00f6cer, M., Kolter, J., and Henneke, P. (2025). Trained Immunity in Skin Infections: Macrophages and Beyond. eLife, 14.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.106688"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2101058","article-title":"Innate Immune Memory and the Host Response to Infection","volume":"208","author":"Sherwood","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, D., Zhu, X., Yan, S., Shi, L., Liu, Z., Zhou, X., and Bi, X. (2023). New Insights into Inflammatory Memory of Epidermal Stem Cells. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1188559"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-024-01015-8","article-title":"Metabolic Regulation in the Induction of Trained Immunity","volume":"Volume 46","author":"Ferreira","year":"2024","journal-title":"Seminars in Immunopathology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.13575","article-title":"Keratinocytes: Innate Immune Cells in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"204","author":"Chieosilapatham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1038\/nature24271","article-title":"Inflammatory Memory Sensitizes Skin Epithelial Stem Cells to Tissue Damage","volume":"550","author":"Naik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.05.011","article-title":"Commensal Microbiota Regulates Skin Barrier Function and Repair via Signaling through the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor","volume":"29","author":"Uberoi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/ajd.14546","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Cellulitis Guidelines: The Role of Non-Pharmacological Management in Preventing Recurrence","volume":"66","author":"Jacka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Australas. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-025-01642-z","article-title":"Atopic Dermatitis: A Comprehensive Updated Review of This Intriguing Disease with Futuristic Insights","volume":"33","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, H., Chen, J., and Li, C. (2025). Immune Memory: A New Frontier in Treating Recurrent Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol., 68.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-025-09039-0"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2015.03.014","article-title":"Dysbiosis and Staphylococcus aureus Colonization Drives Inflammation in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"42","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riksen, N.P., and Netea, M.G. (2021). Immunometabolic Control of Trained Immunity. Mol. Asp. Med., 77.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2020.100897"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, R., Lan, C., Benlagha, K., Camara, N.O.S., Miller, H., Kubo, M., Heegaard, S., Lee, P., Yang, L., and Forsman, H. (2024). The Interaction of Innate Immune and Adaptive Immune System. MedComm, 5.","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.714"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.10.011","article-title":"The Intersection of Epigenetics and Metabolism in Trained Immunity","volume":"54","author":"Fanucchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6635","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S478987","article-title":"Inflammatory Memory in Epidermal Stem Cells\u2014A New Strategy for Recurrent Inflammatory Skin Diseases","volume":"17","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Funes, S.C., Rios, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Fierro, A., Di Genaro, M.S., and Kalergis, A.M. (2022). Trained Immunity Contribution to Autoimmune and Inflammatory Disorders. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.868343"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, W., Guo, Z., Xu, T., Chen, J., Chen, L., and Xu, W. (2025). Reversing Inflammatory Diseases via Trained Immunity: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Prospects. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1666233"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, E.H., Shin, J.H., Kim, S.S., and Seo, S.R. (2021). Sinapic Acid Controls Inflammation by Suppressing NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10092327"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2019.12.006","article-title":"Advances in Understanding Molecular Regulation of Innate Immune Memory","volume":"63","author":"Fanucchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, M., Zhou, J., Mei, J., Gao, C., Ding, P., Li, G., Zhang, C., Li, Z., and Gao, J. (2025). Trained Immunity in Health and Disease. MedComm, 6.","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.70461"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fanucchi, S., and Mhlanga, M.M. (2019). Lnc-Ing Trained Immunity to Chromatin Architecture. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2019.00002"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.11.011","article-title":"Immunometabolic Pathways in BCG-Induced Trained Immunity","volume":"17","author":"Arts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2025.10.610","article-title":"Cutibacterium acnes Induces Skin Region-Specific Innate Immune Memory Alterations in Human Keratinocytes","volume":"146","author":"Balogh","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.05496-11","article-title":"Profound Alterations of Intestinal Microbiota Following a Single Dose of Clindamycin Results in Sustained Susceptibility to Clostridium Difficile-Induced Colitis","volume":"80","author":"Buffie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmud, M.R., Akter, S., Tamanna, S.K., Mazumder, L., Esti, I.Z., Banerjee, S., Akter, S., Hasan, M.R., Acharjee, M., and Hossain, M.S. (2022). Impact of Gut Microbiome on Skin Health: Gut-Skin Axis Observed through the Lenses of Therapeutics and Skin Diseases. Gut Microbes, 14.","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2022.2096995"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., Chenchen, Y.U., Zhang, J., Qinghua, Y.A.O., Xiao, Z.H.U., and Zhou, X. (2025). The Gut-skin Axis: Emerging Insights in Understanding and Treating Skin Diseases through Gut Microbiome Modulation (Review). Int. J. Mol. Med., 56.","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2025.5651"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-019-0025-4","article-title":"Therapeutic Targeting of Trained Immunity","volume":"18","author":"Mulder","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Municio, C., and Criado, G. (2021). Therapies Targeting Trained Immune Cells in Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.631743"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-101721-062818","article-title":"Immune-Epithelial Cross Talk in Regeneration and Repair","volume":"41","author":"Konieczny","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Liu, D., Chen, M., Xu, S., Peng, Q., Zhu, Y., Long, J., Liu, T., Deng, Z., and Xie, H. (2023). TLR7 Promotes Skin Inflammation via Activating NF\u03baB-MTORC1 Axis in Rosacea. PeerJ, 11.","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.15976"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumari, S., Van, T.M., Preukschat, D., Schuenke, H., Basic, M., Bleich, A., Klein, U., and Pasparakis, M. (2021). NF-\u039aB Inhibition in Keratinocytes Causes RIPK1-Mediated Necroptosis and Skin Inflammation. Life Sci. Alliance, 4.","DOI":"10.26508\/lsa.202000956"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxy088","article-title":"Eavesdropping on the Conversation between Immune Cells and the Skin Epithelium","volume":"31","author":"Bukhari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Appios, A., Davies, J., Sirvent, S., Henderson, S., Trzebanski, S., Schroth, J., Law, M.L., Boal Carvalho, I., Magalhaes Pinto, M., and Carvalho, C. (2024). Convergent Evolution of Monocyte Differentiation in Adult Skin Instructs Langerhans Cell Identity. Sci. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.adp0344"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-024-01313-z","article-title":"Resilience of Dermis Resident Macrophages to Inflammatory Challenges","volume":"56","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2939","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20130351","article-title":"A Role for IL-25 and IL-33\u2013Driven Type-2 Innate Lymphoid Cells in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"210","author":"Salimi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ricardo-Gonzalez, R.R., Schneider, C., Liao, C., Lee, J., Liang, H.E., and Locksley, R.M. (2020). Tissue-Specific Pathways Extrude Activated ILC2s to Disseminate Type 2 Immunity. J. Exp. Med., 217.","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20191172"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forde, A.J., Kolter, J., Zwicky, P., Baasch, S., Lohrmann, F., Eckert, M., Gres, V., Lagies, S., Gorka, O., and Rambold, A.S. (2023). Metabolic Rewiring Tunes Dermal Macrophages in Staphylococcal Skin Infection. Sci. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.adg3517"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feuerstein, R., Forde, A.J., Lohrmann, F., Kolter, J., Ramirez, N.J., Zimmermann, J., de Ag\u00fcero, M.G., and Henneke, P. (2020). Resident Macrophages Acquire Innate Immune Memory in Staphylococcal Skin Infection. eLife, 9.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.55602"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.04.029","article-title":"Developmental Acquisition of Regulomes Underlies Innate Lymphoid Cell Functionality","volume":"165","author":"Shih","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Y., Li, F., Gong, Y., Wan, X., and Zhou, L.M. (2024). Protective Effects of Recombined Mussel Adhesive Protein against AD Skin Inflammation in Mice. Cosmetics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cosmetics11040134"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, X., Wang, Z., Huang, H., Luo, G., Cong, L., Yang, J., and Ye, J. (2024). Jianpi Yangxue Qufeng Compound Alleviates Atopic Dermatitis via TLR4\/MyD88\/NF-\u039aB Signaling Pathway. Heliyon, 10.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e23278"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-025-02228-1","article-title":"PD-1 Is Requisite for Skin TRM Cell Formation and Specification by TGF\u03b2","volume":"26","author":"Devi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murata, A., and Tokoyoda, K. (2025). CD4+ Skin Resident Memory T Cells Preferentially Colocalize with Dermal Folr2hi Macrophages in Contact Hypersensitivity. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1590687"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-08466-x","article-title":"Tissue-Resident Memory CD8 T Cell Diversity Is Spatiotemporally Imprinted","volume":"639","author":"Monell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"910","article-title":"Comprehensive Analysis of Predisposing Factors Contributing to Recurrent Cellulitis in Various Age Groups: A One-Year Prospective Study","volume":"7","author":"Nallathamby","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci. Clin. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacob, S.E., Scheman, A., and Nedorost, S. (2026). Reframing Eczema: Th2-Skewed Contact Sensitization, Atopy Patch Testing, and Systemic Contact Dermatitis. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep., 26.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-026-01260-x"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2022.01.007","article-title":"Etiology, Clinical Features, Management, and Outcomes of Skin and Soft Tissue Infections in Hospitalized Children: A 10-Year Review","volume":"55","author":"Yueh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tianyi, F.L., Mbanga, C.M., Danwang, C., and Agbor, V.N. (2018). Risk Factors and Complications of Lower Limb Cellulitis in Africa: A Systematic Review. BMJ Open, 8.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-021175"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taggart, M., Langworthy, K., Hui, S., Boyder, C., Fulurija, A., Morici, M., Raby, E., and Manning, L. (2024). Serological Responses to Streptococcus pyogenes Vaccine Candidate Antigens Suggests That Streptococcus dysgalactiae Is the Predominant Cause of Lower Limb Cellulitis. Open Forum Infect. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofae272"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Arcucci, V., Levy, S.M., and Achen, M.G. (2019). Modulation of Immunity by Lymphatic Dysfunction in Lymphedema. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00076"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burian, E.A., Franks, P.J., Borman, P., Qu\u00e9r\u00e9, I., Karlsmark, T., Keeley, V., Sugama, J., Cestari, M., and Moffatt, C.J. (2024). Factors Associated with Cellulitis in Lymphoedema of the Arm\u2014An International Cross-Sectional Study (LIMPRINT). BMC Infect. Dis., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-023-08839-z"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1245\/s10434-025-18598-7","article-title":"Clinical Features, Microbial Epidemiology, and Recurrence Risk of Cellulitis in Breast Cancer-Related Lymphedema","volume":"33","author":"Wagner","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. Surg. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1159\/000505538","article-title":"The First Disease Episode: A Strategic Treatment Target to Prevent Cellulitis Relapses","volume":"237","author":"Chaniotakis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dermatology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2021.07.001","article-title":"Establishment, Maintenance, and Recall of Inflammatory Memory","volume":"28","author":"Larsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Stevens, D.L., and Bryant, A.E. (2016). Impetigo, Erysipelas and Cellulitis. Streptococcus pyogenes: Basic Biology to Clinical Manifestations, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Brown, B.D., Syed, H.A., and Watson, K.L.H. (2025). Cellulitis. PET\/MR Imaging: A Case-Based Approach, Springer."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e98","DOI":"10.1111\/ijd.14383","article-title":"Increased Antistreptolysin O Serum Levels in Cellulitis Recurrences and Head and Neck Disease Localization","volume":"58","author":"Tziortzioti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlile, S.R., Cahill, S.C., O\u2019Brien, E.C., Neto, N.G.B., Monaghan, M.G., and McLoughlin, R.M. (2024). Staphylococcus aureus Induced Trained Immunity in Macrophages Confers Heterologous Protection against Gram-Negative Bacterial Infection. iScience, 27.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2024.111284"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12902","article-title":"NOD1 and NOD2 in Inflammatory and Infectious Diseases","volume":"297","author":"Trindade","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2009.12.016","article-title":"Rafts and the Battleships of Defense: The Multifaceted Microdomains for Positive and Negative Signals in Immune Cells","volume":"130","author":"Vereb","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolf, A.J. (2023). Peptidoglycan-Induced Modulation of Metabolic and Inflammatory Responses. Immunometabolism, 5.","DOI":"10.1097\/IN9.0000000000000024"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horn, C.M., and Kielian, T. (2021). Crosstalk Between Staphylococcus aureus and Innate Immunity: Focus on Immunometabolism. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.621750"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcuzzi, A., Rimondi, E., Lodi, G., Manfredini, M., Tricarico, P.M., Moltrasio, C., Marzano, A.V., Suleman, M., Secchiero, P., and Melloni, E. (2025). Trained Immunity and Its Potential Implications in the Etiopathogenesis of Hidradenitis Suppurativa: A New Paradigm in Chronic Inflammation?. Exp. Dermatol., 34.","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.70160"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, X.Q., Liu, Z.Z., Zhou, C.K., Zhang, L., Gao, Y., Luo, X.Y., Zhang, J.G., Chen, W., and Yang, Y.J. (2024). Trained Immunity in Recurrent Staphylococcus aureus Infection Promotes Bacterial Persistence. PLoS Pathog., 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011918"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jask\u00f3\u0142a-Polkowska, D.M., Blok, K., Skibi\u0144ska, A., and Chcia\u0142owski, A. (2025). Recurrent Erysipelas: Clinical Challenges and Strategies for Prevention\u2014A Narrative Literature Review. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines13102448"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2396","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-023-08229-w","article-title":"Misdiagnosis of Uncomplicated Cellulitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"38","author":"Nightingale","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.det.2020.02.006","article-title":"Allergic Contact Sensitization in Healthy Skin Differs from Sensitization in Chronic Dermatitis: Atopic, Occupational Wet Work, and Stasis Dermatitis","volume":"38","author":"Nedorost","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dermatol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamamura, Y., Nakashima, C., and Otsuka, A. (2024). Interplay of Cytokines in the Pathophysiology of Atopic Dermatitis: Insights from Murin Models and Human. Front. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1342176"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morizane, S., Mukai, T., Sunagawa, K., Tachibana, K., Kawakami, Y., and Ouchida, M. (2023). \u201cInput\/Output Cytokines\u201d in Epidermal Keratinocytes and the Involvement in Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1239598"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Xu, Z., and Liu, Z. (2023). Role of IL-33-ST2 Pathway in Regulating Inflammation: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives. J. Transl. Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-023-04782-4"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Liu, J., Ma, R., Hao, J., Liang, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, A., Meng, H., and Lu, J. (2022). Interleukin-33: Metabolic Checkpoints, Metabolic Processes, and Epigenetic Regulation in Immune Cells. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.900826"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ddmec.2013.01.001","article-title":"Innate Immunity and the Role of the Antimicrobial Peptide Cathelicidin in Inflammatory Skin Disease","volume":"10","author":"Roby","year":"2013","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today Dis. Mech."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2025.05.006","article-title":"Cathelicidin Expression in the Pathogenesis of Atopic Dermatitis and the Therapeutic Potential of Vitamin D","volume":"139","author":"Connell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jid.5700365","article-title":"Breaking the (Un)Sound Barrier: Filaggrin Is a Major Gene for Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"126","author":"Irvine","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anai.2023.09.009","article-title":"Filaggrin and beyond: New Insights into the Skin Barrier in Atopic Dermatitis and Allergic Diseases, from Genetics to Therapeutic Perspectives","volume":"132","author":"Stefanovic","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, C.H., Lai, A.C.Y., Tsai, C.C., Chen, W.Y., Chang, Y.S., Chung, E.J.C., and Chang, Y.J. (2024). Staphylococcus aureus Exacerbates Dermal IL-33\/ILC2 Axis Activation through Evoking RIPK3\/MLKL-Mediated Necroptosis of Dry Skin. JCI Insight, 9, Erratum in JCI Insight 2024, 9, e185878. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1172\/jci.insight.185878.","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.166821"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2023.10.019","article-title":"S. aureus Drives Itch and Scratch-Induced Skin Damage through a V8 Protease-PAR1 Axis","volume":"186","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, H., Wan, H., and Zhang, D. (2023). Innate Lymphoid Cells: A New Key Player in Atopic Dermatitis. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1277120"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31286-1","article-title":"Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"396","author":"Langan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1159\/000443360","article-title":"Effects of Antibiotics on Gut Microbiota","volume":"34","author":"Lange","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, R., Zheng, Y., and Dai, X. (2025). Atopic Dermatitis: Diagnosis, Molecular Pathogenesis, and Therapeutics. Mol. Biomed., 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-025-00313-3"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.18203\/issn.2455-4529.IntJResDermatol20253398","article-title":"The Association between Atopic Dermatitis and Cellulitis: A Case Report and Literature Review","volume":"11","author":"Odeyinka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.E., Kim, J.S., Cho, D.H., and Park, H.J. (2016). Molecular Mechanisms of Cutaneous Inflammatory Disorder: Atopic Dermatitis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17081234"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, L., Zhou, X., Su, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, D., and Wan, H. (2026). Microbiome Dysbiosis and Therapeutic Restoration in Atopic Dermatitis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2026.1693905"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17712","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c00263","article-title":"Commensal Staphylococcus epidermidis Defends against Staphylococcus aureus through SaeRS Two-Component System","volume":"8","author":"Nurxat","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm4061217","article-title":"The Role of Malassezia Spp. in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"4","author":"Glatz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0105-1873.2006.00774.x","article-title":"Cutaneous Hypersensitivity to Malassezia Sympodialis and Dust Mite in Adult Atopic Dermatitis with a Textile Pattern","volume":"54","author":"McCormick","year":"2006","journal-title":"Contact Dermat."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-025-01171-y","article-title":"Trained Immunity: Induction of an Inflammatory Memory in Disease","volume":"35","author":"Priem","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2020.12.1.137","article-title":"Antibiotics-Induced Dysbiosis of Intestinal Microbiota Aggravates Atopic Dermatitis in Mice by Altered Short-Chain Fatty Acids","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pareek, A., Kumari, L., Pareek, A., Chaudhary, S., Ratan, Y., Janmeda, P., Chuturgoon, S., and Chuturgoon, A. (2024). Unraveling Atopic Dermatitis: Insights into Pathophysiology, Therapeutic Advances, and Future Perspectives. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13050425"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kader, H.A., Azeem, M., Jwayed, S.A., Al-Shehhi, A., Tabassum, A., Ayoub, M.A., Hetta, H.F., Waheed, Y., Iratni, R., and Al-Dhaheri, A. (2021). Current Insights into Immunology and Novel Therapeutics of Atopic Dermatitis. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10061392"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lo, Y., Cheng, T.T., Huang, C.J., Cheng, Y.C., and Chyuan, I.T. (2025). Advancing Therapeutic Strategies in Atopic Dermatitis: Emerging Targets and Personalized Approaches. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15060838"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dominguez-Lopez, R., Aranda, C.J., G\u00f3mez-de la Fuente, E., P\u00e9rez-Garc\u00eda, B., Perez-Bootello, J., Abbad-Jaime de Aragon, C., Gonz\u00e1lez-Cantero, \u00c1., and Berna-Rico, E. (2026). Memory Cells in Atopic Dermatitis: Paving the Way to Disease Modification. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27052371"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2025.12.1009","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus in Atopic Dermatitis: How a Common Bacterium Exploits and Drives Disease","volume":"157","author":"Chehadeh","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., H\u00fclp\u00fcsch, C., Traidl-Hoffmann, C., Reiger, M., and Schloter, M. (2024). Understanding the Role of Staphylococcus aureus in Atopic Dermatitis: Strain Diversity, Microevolution, and Prophage Influences. Front. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1480257"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peignier, A., and Parker, D. (2020). Trained Immunity and Host-Pathogen Interactions. Cell. Microbiol., 22.","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.13261"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2017.10.006","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus Epicutaneous Exposure Drives Skin Inflammation via IL-36-Mediated T Cell Responses","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sviridov, D., Miller, Y.I., and Bukrinsky, M.I. (2022). Trained Immunity and HIV Infection. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.903884"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, A., D\u2019Agostino, M., Afkhami, S., Jeyanathan, M., and Xing, Z. (2025). Resident Memory Macrophages and Trained Innate Immunity at Barrier Tissues. eLife, 14.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.106549"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2025.09.006","article-title":"Cutaneous Immune Memory: A Double-Edged Sword in Skin Repair and Fibrosis","volume":"146","author":"Ghasemishahrestani","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fania, L., Moretta, G., Antonelli, F., Scala, E., Abeni, D., Albanesi, C., and Madonna, S. (2022). Multiple Roles for Cytokines in Atopic Dermatitis: From Pathogenic Mediators to Endotype-Specific Biomarkers to Therapeutic Targets. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052684"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, R., Zou, J., Chen, J., Zhong, X., Kang, R., and Tang, D. (2025). Pattern Recognition Receptors: Function, Regulation and Therapeutic Potential. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02264-1"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gunji, Y., Matsumura, T., Karasawa, T., Komada, T., Baatarjav, C., Komori, S., Aizawa, H., Mizushina, Y., Tsuda, H., and Miyake, K. (2025). IL-33-Primed NLRP3 Inflammasome in Basophils Drives IL-1\u03b2 Production and Initiates Atopic Dermatitis Inflammation. Cell Death Discov., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-025-02630-6"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nedorost, S., Zhang, G., Fekedulegn, D., Fluharty, K., Wang, W., Frye, B., Baron, E., Zug, K., and Yucesoy, B. (2025). Weak Sensitizers May Be Associated with CD80 Polymorphisms: Implications for Systemic Contact Dermatitis. JID Innov., 5.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xjidi.2025.100382"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Upadhyay, P.R., Seminario-Vidal, L., Abe, B., Ghobadi, C., and Sims, J.T. (2023). Cytokines and Epidermal Lipid Abnormalities in Atopic Dermatitis: A Systematic Review. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12242793"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos, Y.\u00c1.L., Pietrobon, A.J., Teixeira, F.M.E., Aoki, V., Sato, M.N., and Orfali, R.L. (2025). Inflammasome Pathways in Atopic Dermatitis: Insights into Inflammatory Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets. An. Bras. Dermatol., 100.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abd.2025.501136"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Wang, H., Taylor, M., Cook, C., Mart\u00ednez-Berdeja, A., North, J.P., Harirchian, P., Hailer, A.A., Zhao, Z., and Ghadially, R. (2022). Classification of Human Chronic Inflammatory Skin Disease Based on Single-Cell Immune Profiling. Sci. Immunol., 7.","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abl9165"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-023-00838-9","article-title":"OX40 in the Pathogenesis of Atopic Dermatitis\u2014A New Therapeutic Target","volume":"25","author":"Croft","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11853","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S527507","article-title":"PI3 as a Common Hub Gene Linking Atopic Dermatitis and Ulcerative Colitis Through Immune Cell Recruitment Mechanisms","volume":"18","author":"Jian","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2017.10.015","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus: Master Manipulator of the Skin","volume":"22","author":"Williams","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1111\/all.15871","article-title":"Temporal Relationships between Staphylococcus aureus Colonization, Filaggrin Expression, and Pediatric Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"79","author":"Dahal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Allergy Eur. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kupschke, E., and Schenk, M. (2025). The Myeloid Switch: Immune Drivers in Atopic Dermatitis\u2014Roles in Pathogenesis and Emerging Therapeutic Targeting. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1608338"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hammond, M., Gamal, A., Mukherjee, P.K., Damiani, G., McCormick, T.S., Ghannoum, M.A., and Nedorost, S. (2022). Cutaneous Dysbiosis May Amplify Barrier Dysfunction in Patients with Atopic Dermatitis. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.944365"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sapu\u0142a, M., Krankowska, D., and Wierci\u0144ska-Drapa\u0142o, A. (2020). In Search of Risk Factors for Recurrent Erysipelas and Cellulitis of the Lower Limb: A Cross-Sectional Study of Epidemiological Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized Due to Skin and Soft-Tissue Infections. Interdiscip. Perspect. Infect. Dis., 2020.","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1307232"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.12476","article-title":"Does Early Life Exposure to Antibiotics Increase the Risk of Eczema? A Systematic Review","volume":"169","author":"Tsakok","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iac.2010.05.001","article-title":"The Infectious Aspects of Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"30","author":"Ong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunol. Allergy Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson, Z.T., Dawson, A.D., Slominski, A.T., and Harris, M.L. (2022). Current Insights Into the Role of Neuropeptide Y in Skin Physiology and Pathology. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.838434"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daccache, J.A., and Naik, S. (2024). Inflammatory Memory in Chronic Skin Disease. JID Innov., 4.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xjidi.2024.100277"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2021.12.794","article-title":"Skin Codelivery of Contact Sensitizers and Neurokinin-1 Receptor Antagonists Integrated in Microneedle Arrays Suppresses Allergic Contact Dermatitis","volume":"150","author":"Bandyopadhyay","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, X., Li, F., and Wang, F. (2023). Neural Regulation of Innate Immunity in Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16020246"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusi\u00f1ol, L., and Puig, L. (2024). Multi-Omics Approach to Improved Diagnosis and Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis and Psoriasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25021042"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fmre.2023.02.021","article-title":"Machine Learning-Based Prediction Models for Atopic Dermatitis Diagnosis and Evaluation","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fundam. Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li Pomi, F., Papa, V., Borgia, F., Vaccaro, M., Pioggia, G., and Gangemi, S. (2024). Artificial Intelligence: A Snapshot of Its Application in Chronic Inflammatory and Autoimmune Skin Diseases. Life, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/life14040516"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poli, G., Fabi, C., Bellet, M.M., Costantini, C., Nunziangeli, L., Romani, L., and Brancorsini, S. (2020). Epigenetic Mechanisms of Inflammasome Regulation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21165758"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sasidharan, N.B., Hely, S., John, S., Arun, K., Raveendran, N.J., Rishitha, G., Kumar, S.S., Nair, K.A., Pal, S., and Sunilkumar, D. (2026). Postbiotics as Multifunctional Bioactives: Mechanistic Insights and Translational Applications in Host Physiology and Microbial Ecosystem Modulation. Microorganisms, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14061230"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1322269111","article-title":"The Microbial Metabolite Butyrate Regulates Intestinal Macrophage Function via Histone Deacetylase Inhibition","volume":"111","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, X., Hu, X., Yao, J., Cao, W., Zou, Z., Wang, L., Qin, H., Zhong, D., Li, Y., and Xue, P. (2023). The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1083432"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1111\/all.15998","article-title":"Propionate Alleviates Itch in Murine Models of Atopic Dermatitis by Modulating Sensory TRP Channels of Dorsal Root Ganglion","volume":"79","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, C.H., Lai, A.C.Y., and Chang, Y.J. (2023). Butyrate Inhibits Staphylococcus aureus-Aggravated Dermal IL-33 Expression and Skin Inflammation through Histone Deacetylase Inhibition. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1114699"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dagenais, A., Villalba-Guerrero, C., and Olivier, M. (2023). Trained Immunity: A \u201cNew\u201d Weapon in the Fight against Infectious Diseases. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1147476"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, K., Zhou, P., Zhang, W., Zeng, L., Tao, K., and Zhang, P. (2025). Itaconic Acid: A Regulator of Immune Responses and Inflammatory Metabolism. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol., 47.","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb47070534"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C., Zhuo, F., Guo, Y., Wang, S., Zhang, K., Li, X., Dai, W., Dou, X., and Yu, B. (2025). Skin Microbiota: Pathogenic Roles and Implications in Atopic Dermatitis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1518811"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.2c00431","article-title":"Microbiome and Human Health: Current Understanding, Engineering, and Enabling Technologies","volume":"123","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qi, P., Gong, F., Leng, M., and Wei, Z. (2025). Beneficial Perspective on Staphylococcus epidermidis: A Crucial Species for Skin Homeostasis and Pathogen Defense. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1674392"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1007\/s00403-018-1865-1","article-title":"Decreased Expression of G-Protein-Coupled Receptors GPR43 and GPR109a in Psoriatic Skin Can Be Restored by Topical Application of Sodium Butyrate","volume":"310","author":"Krejner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, Y., He, C., An, Y., Huang, Y., Zhang, H., Fu, W., Wang, M., Shan, Z., Xie, J., and Yang, Y. (2024). The Role of Short Chain Fatty Acids in Inflammation and Body Health. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137379"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, J., Zhang, P., Shen, L., Niu, L., Tan, Y., Chen, L., Zhao, Y., Bai, L., Hao, X., and Li, X. (2020). Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Association with Signalling Pathways in Inflammation, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21176356"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Facchin, S., Calgaro, M., and Savarino, E.V. (2025). Rethinking Short-Chain Fatty Acids: A Closer Look at Propionate in Inflammation, Metabolism, and Mucosal Homeostasis. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14151130"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szelest, M., Walczak, K., and Plech, T. (2021). A New Insight into the Potential Role of Tryptophan-Derived AhR Ligands in Skin Physiological and Pathological Processes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22031104"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piwowarski, J., Sacharczuk, M., Skowro\u0144ska, W., and Granica, S. (2022). Application of Urolithin A\u2014A Postbiotic Metabolite Produced by Human Gut Microbiota, in Topical Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis. Planta Med., 88.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-1759005"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdin.2020.08.001","article-title":"Single-Cell Transcriptomics in Dermatology","volume":"1","author":"Deutsch","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAAD Int."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000001005","article-title":"Genetic Landscape of Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"24","author":"Paternoster","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2025.08.026","article-title":"Identification of Disease-Specific Regulatory Networks in Prurigo Nodularis versus Atopic Dermatitis through ATAC\/RNA Single-Nucleus Profiling","volume":"156","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.4103\/ds.DS-D-25-00298","article-title":"Single-Cell and Spatial Transcriptomics in Skin Research: From Molecular Complexity to Clinical Translation","volume":"44","author":"Cheng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Dermatol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-025-00963-7","article-title":"Advancing Precision Medicine in Inflammatory Skin Disease","volume":"26","author":"Yuan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/15\/6760\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T14:37:54Z","timestamp":1785249474000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/15\/6760"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"references-count":148,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27156760"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27156760","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]}}}