{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T09:34:36Z","timestamp":1786354476838,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786060800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine Fundamental Grant","award":["FF-2023-176"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FF-2023-176"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003093","name":"Ministry of Higher Education","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FRGS\/1\/2022\/SKK06\/UKM\/03\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRGS\/1\/2022\/SKK06\/UKM\/03\/2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003093","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["FRGS\/1\/2022\/SKK06\/UKM\/03\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRGS\/1\/2022\/SKK06\/UKM\/03\/2"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05mcs2t73","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid expansion of 5G technology has increased exposure to high-frequency radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), raising concerns about male reproductive health. This study investigated the effects of 5G frequencies at 3.5 GHz and 24 GHz on male libido, reproductive hormones, the testosterone-to-oestrogen (T\/E) ratio, and androgen receptor expression in rats. Eighteen male Sprague\u2013Dawley rats were randomly assigned to Control, 3.5 GHz, and 24 GHz (n = 6\/group). Exposed groups received 7 h\/day RF-EMF exposure for 60 consecutive days, while the Control underwent sham exposure. During the final week of exposure, mating behaviours were assessed using mount frequency, mount latency, intromission frequency, ejaculation latency, and post-ejaculatory interval. Serum testosterone and oestrogen levels, the T\/E ratio and androgen receptor expression in the testis and hypothalamus were evaluated. The 3.5 GHz group demonstrated statistically significantly prolonged ejaculation latency (3480 \u00b1 1576.956, p &lt; 0.01, Hedges\u2019 g = 1.03) compared with the Control group. In contrast, 24 GHz exposure statistically significantly reduced mount frequency (4.80 \u00b1 0.837, p &lt; 0.01, Hedges\u2019 g = \u22120.65) and prolonged the post-ejaculatory interval (588.83 \u00b1 206.41 s, p &lt; 0.01, Hedges\u2019 g = 1.63) compared with the Control group. Hormonal analysis revealed statistically significant elevation of testosterone levels in the 3.5 GHz group, whereas the 24 GHz group showed statistically significant reductions in testosterone and oestrogen. Androgen receptor expression was unchanged. These findings suggest frequency-dependent effects of 5G RF-EMF on male libido and endocrine balance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27167102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T09:24:53Z","timestamp":1786353893000},"page":"7102","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Differential Effects of 3.5 GHz and 24 GHz 5G Radiofrequency Exposure on Male Sexual Behaviour and Reproductive Endocrine Function in Rats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Atikah","family":"Hairulazam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4474-8032","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siti Fatimah","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3348-0672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khairul","family":"Osman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forensic Science Program, Center for Diagnostics, Therapeutics and Investigative Studies (CODTIS), Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz 50300, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7801-6358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohd Helmy","family":"Mokhtar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1270-4630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aini Farzana","family":"Zulkefli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd Farisyam","family":"Mat Ros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1835-1939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Norazurashima","family":"Jamaludin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forensic Science Program, Center for Diagnostics, Therapeutics and Investigative Studies (CODTIS), Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz 50300, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8931-5897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Syed Muhamad Asyraf","family":"Syed Taha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sivasatyan","family":"Vijay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1467-405X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zahriladha","family":"Zakaria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electronic and Computer Technology and Engineering (FTKEK), Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Hang Tuah Jaya, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amyrul Azuan","family":"Mohd Bahar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intel Corporation, Jalan Sultan Azlan Shah, Bayan Lepas 11900, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7645-3805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Farah Hanan Fathihah","family":"Jaffar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euf.2022.11.004","article-title":"Effect of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Radiation Emitted by 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