{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T11:37:24Z","timestamp":1786534644147,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chinese College Students\u2019 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program","award":["202510626051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202510626051"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Obesity is a heterogeneous chronic disease for which safe, scalable adjuncts to lifestyle and clinical care remain needed. Tea derived from Camellia sinensis contains catechins, caffeine, theaflavins, thearubigins, theabrownins, polysaccharides, and other constituents whose abundance is shaped by withering, fixation, partial oxidation, full oxidation, and post-fermentation. This review integrates processing-dependent composition with molecular mechanisms, gut\u2013liver signaling, human evidence, safety, and real-world preparation. Evidence is strongest for modest effects of green-tea catechin\u2013caffeine preparations on energy metabolism and selected anthropometric or lipid outcomes, whereas inhibition of adipogenesis, activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, browning of white adipose tissue, and many appetite-related pathways remain supported mainly by cell and rodent studies. A recent meta-analysis in women with overweight or obesity estimated mean reductions of \u22121.23 kg in body weight and \u22123.46 cm in waist circumference, with intervention durations across the included trials typically ranging from 4 to 24 weeks, though most of the evidence derives from short- to medium-term interventions (generally \u226412 weeks); heterogeneity was moderate to high and the average weight effect remained below conventional clinical thresholds. Partially oxidized oolong tea and fully oxidized or post-fermented teas provide distinct profiles of caffeine, oxidized polyphenols, and microbial metabolites; their metabolic effects are promising but are less consistently tested in adequately powered human trials. Across tea types, convergent mechanisms include reduced digestive-enzyme activity, increased fatty-acid oxidation, modulation of thermogenesis, reinforcement of the intestinal barrier, and microbiota-dependent production of short-chain fatty acids and bile-acid signals. Translation is constrained by low systemic polyphenol exposure (i.e., limited bioavailability of intact catechins and their metabolites in circulation due to poor intestinal absorption, extensive phase-II metabolism, and rapid clearance), non-standardized doses and products, short intervention periods, interindividual variability, and limited direct comparisons among tea types. Available clinical data do not support tea as a primary treatment for obesity; rather, unsweetened tea or standardized preparations may serve as adjuncts to evidence-based dietary, physical activity, behavioral, and medical management. Priority areas include physiologically relevant dosing, standardized reporting of brewed-tea composition, long-term trials, and microbiome-informed personalization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27167203","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T11:02:11Z","timestamp":1786532531000},"page":"7203","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Tea Bioactive Compounds in Obesity Prevention and Management: Processing-Dependent Composition, Molecular Mechanisms, Human Evidence, and Translational Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Yangxian","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Physical Education, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya\u2019an 625014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4582-3599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guoyuan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Physical Education, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya\u2019an 625014, China"},{"name":"Ya\u2019an Key Laboratory of Sports Human Science and National Physical Fitness Promotion, Ya\u2019an 625014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kwon","family":"Soonjae","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Taekwondo, Honam University, Gwangju 62399, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Zhou, A., and Qi, W. (2022). The potential to fight obesity with adipogenesis modulating compounds. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23042299"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Cuevas, J., Santos, A., and Armendariz-Borunda, J. (2021). Pathophysiological molecular mechanisms of obesity: A link between MAFLD and NASH with cardiovascular diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222111629"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13795","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.13795","article-title":"Trapped fat: Obesity pathogenesis as an intrinsic disorder in metabolic fuel partitioning","volume":"25","author":"Friedman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2022.115015","article-title":"Obesity II: Establishing causal links between chemical exposures and obesity","volume":"199","author":"Heindel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biochem Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3716","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1992748","article-title":"Effects and mechanisms of tea on obesity","volume":"63","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2020.112513","article-title":"Mechanisms of action for the anti-obesogenic activities of phytochemicals","volume":"180","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"65","article-title":"Potential bioactive components and health promotional benefits of tea (Camellia sinensis)","volume":"41","author":"Samanta","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Am. Nutr. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2024.141785","article-title":"Preliminary exploration of the C-3 galloyl group and the B-5\u2032 hydroxyl group enhance the biological activity of catechins in alleviating obesity induced by high-fat diet in mice","volume":"464","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sasaki, G.Y., Vodovotz, Y., Yu, Z., and Bruno, R.S. (2022). Catechin bioavailability following consumption of a green tea extract confection is reduced in obese persons without affecting gut microbial-derived valerolactones. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11122490"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10382","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2068500","article-title":"Chemico-biological aspects of (\u2013)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) to improve its stability, bioavailability and membrane permeability: Current status and future prospects","volume":"63","author":"Sahadevan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202400050","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.202400050","article-title":"Caffeine and purine derivatives: A comprehensive review on the chemistry, biosynthetic pathways, synthesis-related reactions, biomedical prospectives and clinical applications","volume":"21","author":"Hakami","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4105","DOI":"10.1039\/D0FO01768J","article-title":"Combined use of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and caffeine in low doses exhibits marked anti-obesity synergy through regulation of gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism","volume":"12","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abudureheman, B., Yu, X., Fang, D., and Zhang, H. (2022). Enzymatic oxidation of tea catechins and its mechanism. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27030942"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5715","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.2c01416","article-title":"The oxidation mechanism of flavan-3-ols by an enzymatic reaction using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-based metabolomics Combined with captured o-quinone intermediates of Flavan-3-ols by o-Phenylenediamine","volume":"70","author":"Zha","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2022.111731","article-title":"Study into the chemical changes of tea leaf polyphenols during Japanese black tea processing","volume":"160","author":"Ito","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2021.110899","article-title":"Chemical constituents and biological properties of Pu-erh tea","volume":"154","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9922","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO01966J","article-title":"Hypoglycemic and lipid lowering effects of theaflavins in high-fat diet-induced obese mice","volume":"12","author":"Cai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2021.1949074","article-title":"Study on mechanism of low bioavailability of black tea theaflavins by using Caco-2 cell monolayer","volume":"28","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5005","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.2c00995","article-title":"Gut microbiota as a Novel tool to dissect the complex structures of black tea polymers","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2025.115666","article-title":"Comparative study of the anti-obesity effects of white tea and dark tea: Insights from microbiome and metabolomics","volume":"202","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akyildiz, K., Yilmaz, A., Avci, U., Toraman, M.N., and Yazici, Z.A. (2024). White tea consumption alleviates anthropometric and metabolic parameters in obese patients. Medicina, 60.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina60101568"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-7075-6-20","article-title":"White Tea extract induces lipolytic activity and inhibits adipogenesis in human subcutaneous (pre)-adipocytes","volume":"6","author":"Knott","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Takano, J., Murayama, N., Tominaga, M., Abe, T., Park, I., Seol, J., Ishihara, A., Tanaka, Y., and Yajima, K. (2020). Subacute ingestion of caffeine and oolong tea increases fat oxidation without affecting energy expenditure and sleep architecture: A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded cross-over trial. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12123671"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4971","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-12896-x","article-title":"Theabrownin from Pu-erh tea attenuates hypercholesterolemia via modulation of gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2023.04.020","article-title":"Postprandial metabolic responses to high-fat feeding in healthy adults following ingestion of oolong tea-derived polymerized polyphenols: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled crossover study","volume":"118","author":"Perkin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraiz, G.M., Bonif\u00e1cio, D.B., Lacerda, U.V., Cardoso, R.R., Corich, V., Giacomini, A., Martino, H.S.D., Esteban-Echeverr\u00eda, S., Romo-Hualde, A., and Mu\u00f1oz-Prieto, D. (2024). The impact of green tea kombucha on the intestinal health, gut microbiota, and serum metabolome of individuals with excess body weight in a weight loss intervention: A randomized controlled trial. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13223635"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1613","DOI":"10.1039\/C4FO00209A","article-title":"Effects of black tea on body composition and metabolic outcomes related to cardiovascular disease risk: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"5","author":"Croft","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2016.08.052","article-title":"Inhibition of pancreatic lipase by black tea theaflavins: Comparative enzymology and in silico modeling studies","volume":"216","author":"Glisan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2019.118023","article-title":"Analysis of inhibitory interaction between epigallocatechin gallate and \u03b1-glucosidase: A spectroscopy and molecular simulation study","volume":"230","author":"Dai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3489","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-60265-2","article-title":"Chemical profile changes during pile fermentation of Qingzhuan tea affect inhibition of \u03b1-amylase and lipase","volume":"10","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.1039\/D2FO02442J","article-title":"Purple tea: Chemical characterization and evaluation as inhibitor of pancreatic lipase and fat digestion in mice","volume":"14","author":"Dias","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0802141","article-title":"Beneficial effects of tea catechins on diet-induced obesity: Stimulation of lipid catabolism in the liver","volume":"26","author":"Murase","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2023.109349","article-title":"Tea polyphenol EGCG ameliorates obesity-related complications by regulating lipidomic pathway in leptin receptor knockout rats","volume":"118","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6548","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2580","article-title":"Green tea aqueous extract (GTAE) prevents high-fat-diet-induced obesity by activating fat browning","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-022-00648-6","article-title":"Anti-obesity effects of heat-transformed green tea extract through the activation of adipose tissue thermogenesis","volume":"19","author":"Im","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2020.108429","article-title":"Adipogenic commitment induced by green tea polyphenols remodels adipocytes to a thermogenic phenotype","volume":"83","author":"Bolin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2019.108322","article-title":"Polyphenol-rich green tea extract induces thermogenesis in mice by a mechanism dependent on adiponectin signaling","volume":"78","author":"Bolin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1926","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.REV119.007363","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges in the therapeutic activation of human energy expenditure and thermogenesis to manage obesity","volume":"295","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14530","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.1c04553","article-title":"Polyphenols from Fu brick tea reduce obesity via modulation of gut microbiota and gut microbiota-related intestinal oxidative stress and barrier function","volume":"69","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2400685","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202400685","article-title":"Tea polyphenols reduced obesity by modulating gut microbiota\u2013SCFAs\u2013barrier and inflammation in high-fat diet-induced mice","volume":"68","author":"Tian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2436","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.12476","article-title":"Effect of tea catechins on gut microbiota in high fat diet-induced obese mice","volume":"103","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6371","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201800370R","article-title":"Obesity treatment by epigallocatechin-3-gallate-regulated bile acid signaling and its enriched Akkermansia muciniphila","volume":"32","author":"Sheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-Burillo, S., Navajas-Porras, B., L\u00f3pez-Maldonado, A., Hinojosa-Nogueira, D., Pastoriza, S., and Rufi\u00e1n-Henares, J.\u00c1. (2021). Green tea and its relation to human gut microbiome. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26133907"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Hu, G., Wang, A., Long, G., Yang, Y., Wang, D., Zhong, N., and Jia, J. (2022). Black tea reduces diet-induced obesity in mice via modulation of gut microbiota and gene expression in host tissues. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14081635"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, A., Wang, J., Kou, R., Chen, M., Zhang, B., Zhang, Y., Liu, J., Xing, X., Peng, B., and Wang, S. (2022). Polyphenol-rich oolong tea alleviates obesity and modulates gut microbiota in high-fat diet-fed mice. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.937279"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4015","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.14157","article-title":"Differences in anti-obesity effects between raw and ripened Pu-erh tea polyphenols: Impact on gut microbiota enterotypes","volume":"105","author":"Ning","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9983","DOI":"10.1039\/D4FO02283A","article-title":"Stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor 1\u03b1 and regulation of specific gut microbes by EGCG contribute to the alleviation of ileal barrier disorder and obesity","volume":"15","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2018.07.018","article-title":"Green tea polyphenols modify gut-microbiota dependent metabolisms of energy, bile constituents and micronutrients in female Sprague-Dawley rats","volume":"61","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12452","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of green tea on risk factors for type 2 diabetes in obese adults\u2014A review","volume":"17","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2021.06.006","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms underlying health benefits of tea compounds","volume":"172","author":"Shang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711452300260X","article-title":"The effects of green tea extract supplementation on body composition, obesity-related hormones and oxidative stress markers: A GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"131","author":"Asbaghi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2848","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/131.11.2848","article-title":"Oolong tea increases metabolic rate and fat oxidation in men","volume":"131","author":"Rumpler","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Hu, Q., Chen, B., and Ma, D. (2025). Effects of Liupao tea with different years of aging on glycolipid metabolism, body composition, and gut microbiota in adults with obesity or overweight: A randomized, double-blind study. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14050866"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS), Younes, M., Aggett, P., Aguilar, F., Crebelli, R., Dusemund, B., Filipi\u010d, M., Frutos, M.J., Galtier, P., and Gott, D. (2018). Scientific opinion on the safety of green tea catechins. EFSA J., 16, e05239.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2018.5239"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, R., and Cao, Y. (2025). The safety and efficacy of dietary epigallocatechin gallate supplementation for the management of obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Recent updates. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines13010206"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"111","article-title":"Decaffeinated green tea polyphenols supplementation had no adverse health effects in girls with obesity: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"33","author":"Yao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.117.161364","article-title":"A 1-h time interval between a meal containing iron and consumption of tea attenuates the inhibitory effects on iron absorption: A controlled trial in a cohort of healthy UK women using a stable iron isotope","volume":"106","author":"Koller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2005.03.015","article-title":"Extraction of active ingredients from green tea (Camellia sinensis): Extraction efficiency of major catechins and caffeine","volume":"96","author":"Knez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1177\/1082013210367567","article-title":"Extraction of antioxidants and caffeine from green tea (Camelia sinensis) leaves: Kinetics and modeling","volume":"16","author":"Ziaedini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol. Int."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2020.110050","article-title":"Competitive interactions among tea catechins, proteins, and digestive enzymes modulate in vitro protein digestibility, catechin bioaccessibility, and antioxidant activity of milk tea beverage model systems","volume":"140","author":"Qie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1600568","article-title":"Bioavailability of catechins from tea: The effect of milk","volume":"52","author":"Kivits","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"CD008650","article-title":"Green tea for weight loss and weight maintenance in overweight or obese adults","volume":"12","author":"Jurgens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10138","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2023.2220796","article-title":"The effect of green tea supplementation on the anthropometric outcomes in overweight and obese women: A time- and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"64","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e21228","article-title":"Effects of green tea catechin on the blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese population\u2014A meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736724","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.736724","article-title":"Effect of decaffeinated green tea polyphenols on body fat and precocious puberty in obese girls: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"12","author":"Xie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1089\/chi.2022.0032","article-title":"Effect of coffee and tea consumption on adolescent weight control: An interventional pilot study","volume":"19","author":"Cohen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Obes."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S94881","article-title":"Reduction of body fat and improved lipid profile associated with daily consumption of a Puer tea extract in a hyperlipidemic population: A randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"11","author":"Jensen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2411029","DOI":"10.1080\/15502783.2024.2411029","article-title":"Does green tea catechin enhance weight-loss effect of exercise training in overweight and obese individuals? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials","volume":"21","author":"Gholami","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zelicha, H., Kl\u00f6ting, N., Kaplan, A., Meir, A.Y., Rinott, E., Tsaban, G., Chassidim, Y., Bluher, M., Ceglarek, U., and Isermann, B. (2022). The effect of high-polyphenol Mediterranean diet on visceral adiposity: The DIRECT PLUS randomized controlled trial. BMC Med., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-022-02525-8"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2085","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2020-323106","article-title":"Effect of green-Mediterranean diet on intrahepatic fat: The DIRECT PLUS randomized controlled trial","volume":"70","author":"Rinott","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"22","article-title":"Application of gut bacterial profiling information in precision nutrition for obesity and weight loss management","volume":"17","author":"Aranaz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lifestyle Genom."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2023.100571","article-title":"A comprehensive review of nano-delivery system for tea polyphenols: Construction, applications, and challenges","volume":"17","author":"Qi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13380","DOI":"10.1111\/jfbc.13380","article-title":"Nanotechnology improves delivery efficiency and bioavailability of tea polyphenols","volume":"44","author":"Yin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Biochem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2021.110186","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges for the nanodelivery of green tea catechins in functional foods","volume":"142","author":"Rashidinejad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2025.116111","article-title":"Effects of microbial fermentation on tea in alleviating obesity symptoms: Insights from microbiome and metabolomics","volume":"208","author":"Peng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/16\/7203\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T11:04:51Z","timestamp":1786532691000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/16\/7203"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27167203"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27167203","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]}}}