{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T04:26:31Z","timestamp":1787199991902,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Forensic genetics is moving from locus-based DNA profiling toward genome-wide inference enabled by high-density single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data. While short tandem repeats remain central to routine human identification, SNP-based technologies and massively parallel sequencing have expanded the analysis of distant kinship through detection of identity-by-descent (IBD) segments and shared autosomal DNA. This narrative review synthesizes the biological basis of SNP-based distant kinship inference, the statistical and computational frameworks used to model genomic relatedness, and the operational transition from relatedness detection to forensic genetic genealogy (FGG). It distinguishes genetic genealogy database matching from formal forensic kinship testing, targeted SNP panels, SNP capture, low-coverage sequencing, Bayesian and machine-learning approaches, and independent forensic confirmation. Applications in criminal investigations, unidentified human remains, historical identifications, and broader relationship-inference contexts are discussed. The review also examines limitations related to recombination, stochastic inheritance, marker density, genotype quality, degraded or mixed forensic samples, population structure, endogamy, database composition, and genealogical record availability. Ethical and regulatory issues involving consent, privacy, database governance, law-enforcement access, data retention, and non-consenting relatives are considered. Overall, SNP-based forensic genomics can generate powerful investigative leads, but its outputs must be interpreted within method-specific analytical and evidentiary boundaries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27167386","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T16:12:11Z","timestamp":1787069531000},"page":"7386","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in Distant Kinship Inference and Forensic Genetic Genealogy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1251-3383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Denisse Stephania","family":"Becerra-Loaiza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Estancia Posdoctoral Avalada por la Secretar\u00eda de Ciencias, Humanidades, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n (SECIHTI), Guadalajara 44540, Jalisco, Mexico"},{"name":"Departamento de Morfolog\u00eda, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"},{"name":"Instituto de Gen\u00e9tica Humana \u201cDr. Enrique Corona Rivera\u201d, Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular y Gen\u00f3mica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7642-2699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nayeli","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Ortiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Gen\u00e9tica Humana \u201cDr. Enrique Corona Rivera\u201d, Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular y Gen\u00f3mica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"},{"name":"Doctorado en Gen\u00e9tica Humana, Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular y Gen\u00f3mica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4725-0708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yolanda","family":"Puga-Carrillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Gen\u00e9tica Humana \u201cDr. Enrique Corona Rivera\u201d, Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular y Gen\u00f3mica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"},{"name":"Maestr\u00eda en Gen\u00e9tica Forense e Identificaci\u00f3n Humana, Departamento de Morfolog\u00eda, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joel Alberto","family":"Aguilar-Vel\u00e1zquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Matem\u00e1ticas, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa, Mexico City 09340, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6174-0609","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Itzae Adonai","family":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Hurtado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular y Gen\u00f3mica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5346-5595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Alonso","family":"Aguilar-Vel\u00e1zquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Morfolog\u00eda, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"},{"name":"Instituto de Gen\u00e9tica Humana \u201cDr. Enrique Corona Rivera\u201d, Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular y Gen\u00f3mica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg1455","article-title":"Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis","volume":"5","author":"Jobling","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Hurtado, I.A., Garc\u00eda-Ac\u00e9ves, M.E., Puga-Carrillo, Y., Guardado-Estrada, M., Becerra-Loaiza, D.S., Carrillo-Rodr\u00edguez, V.D., Plazola-Zamora, R., God\u00ednez-Rub\u00ed, J.M., Rangel-Villalobos, H., and Aguilar-Vel\u00e1zquez, J.A. (2025). Past, present and future perspectives of forensic genetics. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15050713"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2015.02.003","article-title":"Forensic DNA phenotyping: Predicting human appearance from crime scene material for investigative purposes","volume":"18","author":"Kayser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Butler, J.M. (2012). Advanced Topics in Forensic DNA Typing: Methodology, Academic Press. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/book\/monograph\/9780123745132\/advanced-topics-in-forensic-dna-typing-methodology."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/S0888-7543(03)00076-4","article-title":"An exhaustive DNA micro-satellite map of the human genome using high performance computing","volume":"82","author":"Collins","year":"2003","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg1348","article-title":"Microsatellites: Simple sequences with complex evolution","volume":"5","author":"Ellegren","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"20","article-title":"Forensic DNA profiling and database","volume":"10","author":"Panneerchelvam","year":"2003","journal-title":"Malays. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"43","article-title":"Application of autosomal SNPs and indels in forensic analysis","volume":"24","author":"Phillips","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.10.020","article-title":"SNPs in forensic genetics: A review on SNP typing methodologies","volume":"154","author":"Sobrino","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1459","DOI":"10.1002\/wfs2.1459","article-title":"Evolution of single-nucleotide polymorphism use in forensic genetics","volume":"4","author":"Novroski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.2144\/000112806","article-title":"Forensically relevant SNP classes","volume":"44","author":"Budowle","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotechniques"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2015.05.012","article-title":"Forensic genetic analysis of bio-geographical ancestry","volume":"18","author":"Phillips","year":"2015","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2023.102870","article-title":"Recent advances in forensic DNA phenotyping of appearance, ancestry and age","volume":"65","author":"Kayser","year":"2023","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2952","article-title":"Improving human forensics through advances in genetics, genomics and molecular biology","volume":"12","author":"Kayser","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-007-0018-1","article-title":"STRs vs. SNPs: Thoughts on the future of forensic DNA testing","volume":"3","author":"Butler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-013-0879-7","article-title":"Single nucleotide polymorphism typing with massively parallel sequencing for human identification","volume":"127","author":"Seo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2018.10.017","article-title":"From next generation sequencing to now generation sequencing in forensics","volume":"38","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matute, S.P., and Iyavoo, S. (2025). Implementation of NGS and SNP microarrays in routine forensic practice: Opportunities and barriers. BMC Genom., 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-025-11723-6"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"314","article-title":"Construction of a genetic linkage map in man using restriction fragment length polymorphisms","volume":"32","author":"Botstein","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1038\/35103535","article-title":"Accessing genetic variation: Genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms","volume":"2","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt1486","article-title":"Next-generation DNA sequencing","volume":"26","author":"Shendure","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2626","article-title":"Sequencing technologies\u2014The next generation","volume":"11","author":"Metzker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau4832","article-title":"Identity inference of genomic data using long-range familial searches","volume":"362","author":"Erlich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2024.103055","article-title":"Developmental validation of the ForenSeq\u00ae Kintelligence kit, MiSeq FGx\u00ae sequencing system and ForenSeq Universal Analysis Software","volume":"71","author":"Antunes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-genet-110711-155534","article-title":"Identity by descent between distant relatives: Detection and applications","volume":"46","author":"Browning","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.112.148825","article-title":"Identity by descent: Variation in meiosis, across genomes, and in populations","volume":"194","author":"Thompson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau1083","article-title":"Genealogy databases and the future of criminal investigation","volume":"360","author":"Ram","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2021.102474","article-title":"Investigative genetic genealogy: Current methods, knowledge and practice","volume":"52","author":"Kling","year":"2021","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"lsab001","DOI":"10.1093\/jlb\/lsab001","article-title":"Four misconceptions about investigative genetic genealogy","volume":"8","author":"Guerrini","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Law Biosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-genom-111819-084213","article-title":"Pedigrees and perpetrators: Uses of DNA and genealogy in forensic investigations","volume":"21","author":"Katsanis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Genom. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2019.03.039","article-title":"Genetic genealogy for cold case and active investigations","volume":"299","author":"Greytak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2022.102679","article-title":"Forensic genetic genealogy: A profile of cases solved","volume":"58","author":"Dowdeswell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2019.06.019","article-title":"Forensic genealogy-A comparison of methods to infer distant relationships based on dense SNP data","volume":"42","author":"Kling","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4121","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.14833","article-title":"How to estimate kinship","volume":"27","author":"Goudet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.117.1122","article-title":"Benchmarking relatedness inference methods with genome-wide data from thousands of relatives","volume":"207","author":"Ramstetter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2020.12.004","article-title":"Distinguishing pedigree relationships via multi-way identity by descent sharing and sex-specific genetic maps","volume":"108","author":"Qiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caballero, M., Seidman, D.N., Qiao, Y., Sannerud, J., Dyer, T.D., Lehman, D.M., Curran, J.E., Duggirala, R., Blangero, J., and Carmi, S. (2019). Crossover interference and sex-specific genetic maps shape identical by descent sharing in close relatives. PLoS Genet., 15.","DOI":"10.1101\/527655"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2218","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.15127","article-title":"Analysis of the genealogy process in forensic genetic genealogy","volume":"67","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tillmar, A., and Kling, D. (2025). Comparative study of statistical approaches and SNP panels to infer distant relationships in forensic genetics. Genes, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16020114"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Bettinger, B.T. (2026, May 05). The Shared cM Project Version 4.0. The Genetic Genealogist. Available online: https:\/\/thegeneticgenealogist.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Shared-cM-Project-Version-4.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Perl, J. (2026, May 05). DNA Painter Shared cM Project 4.0 Tool. DNA Painter. Available online: https:\/\/dnapainter.com\/tools\/sharedcmv4."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"AncestryDNA (2026, May 05). AncestryDNA Matching White Paper. AncestryDNA. Available online: https:\/\/www.ancestrycdn.com\/support\/us\/2025\/01\/2025matchingwhitepaper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2024.112208","article-title":"It\u2019s all relative: A multi-generational study using ForenSeq\u2122 Kintelligence","volume":"364","author":"Daniel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zang, Y., Wu, E., Li, T., Liu, J., Wu, R., Li, R., and Sun, H. (2024). Evaluation of four forensic investigative genetic genealogy analysis approaches with decreased numbers of SNPs and increased genotyping errors. Genes, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes15101329"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2487-2","article-title":"Native American gene flow into Polynesia predating Easter Island settlement","volume":"583","author":"Ioannidis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iyaf094","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/iyaf094","article-title":"A rapid accurate approach to inferring pedigrees in endogamous populations","volume":"230","author":"Williams","year":"2025","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1111\/1755-0998.12665","article-title":"Pedigree reconstruction from SNP data: Parentage assignment, sibship clustering and beyond","volume":"17","author":"Huisman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Resour."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2022.102769","article-title":"Fast and accurate kinship estimation using sparse SNPs in relatively large database searches","volume":"61","author":"Snedecor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2019.05.016","article-title":"Using genetic genealogy databases in missing persons cases and to develop suspect leads in violent crimes","volume":"301","author":"Kennett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"1","article-title":"Bayesian statistics and modelling","volume":"1","author":"Depaoli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Methods Prim."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-statistics-040522-015915","article-title":"Bayesian inference for misspecified generative models","volume":"11","author":"Nott","year":"2024","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Stat. Appl."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ge, J., Budowle, B., Cariaso, M., Mittelman, K., and Mittelman, D. (2025). A likelihood ratio framework for inferring close kinship from dynamically selected SNPs. Front. Genet., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2025.1635734"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2018.10.006","article-title":"Improved pairwise kinship analysis using massively parallel sequencing","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.14615","article-title":"Forensic investigation approaches of searching relatives in DNA databases","volume":"66","author":"Ge","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2021.102636","article-title":"Extended kinship analysis of historical remains using SNP capture","volume":"57","author":"Gorden","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1093\/jhered\/esad041","article-title":"A computational approach for positive genetic identification and relatedness detection from low-coverage shotgun sequencing data","volume":"114","author":"Nguyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hered."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgg.2024.06.016","article-title":"Forensic investigative genetic genealogy: Expanding pedigree tracing and genetic inquiry in the genomic era","volume":"52","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Genet. Genom."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2024.126161","article-title":"Kinship analysis and machine learning algorithms in forensic contexts: A new NGS panel","volume":"266","author":"Cosenza","year":"2025","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2025.103225","article-title":"Ethical and security challenges in AI for forensic genetics: From bias to adversarial attacks","volume":"76","author":"Marsico","year":"2025","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, R., Zang, Y., Liu, J., Wu, E., Wu, R., and Sun, H. (2025). Inferring the degree of relatedness and kinship types using an all-in-one marker set. Genes, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16040455"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2022.111242","article-title":"Forensic genetic genealogy using microarrays for the identification of human remains: The need for good quality samples-A pilot study","volume":"334","author":"Davawala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2021.102625","article-title":"Impact of SNP microarray analysis of compromised DNA on kinship classification success in the context of investigative genetic genealogy","volume":"56","author":"Kling","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2010.07.005","article-title":"Forensic utilization of familial searches in DNA databases","volume":"5","author":"Gershaw","year":"2011","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"48","article-title":"Perspectiva general de la gen\u00e9tica y la gen\u00f3mica forense en M\u00e9xico","volume":"2","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Digit. Cienc. Forense"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1080\/07366205.2024.2386218","article-title":"Prioritizing privacy and presentation of supportable hypothesis testing in forensic genetic genealogy investigations","volume":"76","author":"Budowle","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biotechniques"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e30074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e30074","article-title":"Opt-in or out? Public perspectives on forensic DNA kinship investigations within the Dutch-speaking community","volume":"10","author":"Claerhout","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1080\/23294515.2024.2336904","article-title":"Public perspectives on investigative genetic genealogy: Findings from a national focus group study","volume":"15","author":"Dahlquist","year":"2024","journal-title":"AJOB Empir. Bioeth."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0172-5","article-title":"Forensic genealogy and the power of defaults","volume":"37","author":"Ram","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2018.07.011","article-title":"Forensic genealogy: Some serious concerns","volume":"36","year":"2018","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsisyn.2019.07.003","article-title":"Forensic genealogy, bioethics and the Golden State Killer case","volume":"1","author":"Wickenheiser","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Synerg."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2020.110576","article-title":"Familial DNA analysis and criminal investigation: Usage, downsides and privacy concerns","volume":"318","author":"Mateen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"301696","article-title":"Some areas where digital forensics can support the addressing of legal challenges linked to forensic genetic genealogy","volume":"49","author":"Nogel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Digit. Investig."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2018.07.010","article-title":"The Golden State Killer investigation and the nascent field of forensic genealogy","volume":"36","author":"Phillips","year":"2018","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2026, February 18). Law Enforcement Cases Solved Using Genetic Genealogy. International Society of Genetic Genealogy. Available online: https:\/\/isogg.org\/wiki\/Law_enforcement_cases_solved_using_genetic_genealogy."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2021.102525","article-title":"Getting the conclusive lead with investigative genetic genealogy\u2014A successful case study of a 16 year old double murder in Sweden","volume":"53","author":"Tillmar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1531","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.15469","article-title":"Investigative genetic genealogy for human remains identification","volume":"69","author":"Greytak","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"owae032","DOI":"10.1093\/fsr\/owae032","article-title":"Moving from the unknown to the known: A multidisciplinary approach to the identification of skeletal remains from Sandy Point, Australia","volume":"9","author":"Blau","year":"2024","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glynn, C.L. (2022). Bridging disciplines to form a new one: The emergence of forensic genetic genealogy. Genes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes13081381"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2023.102972","article-title":"Operationalisation of the ForenSeq\u00ae Kintelligence Kit for Australian unidentified and missing persons casework","volume":"68","author":"Watson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-024-03335-8","article-title":"Comparison of commercial targeted amplicon sequencing assays for human remains identification casework","volume":"139","author":"McNevin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-025-03492-4","article-title":"Evaluation of the ForenSeq\u00ae Kintelligence Kit and the FORensic Capture Enrichment Panel for unidentified and missing persons casework","volume":"139","author":"Watson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"211","article-title":"The overview of forensic genetic genealogy","volume":"72","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sadowej Kryminol."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"301","article-title":"Forensic genealogy: A powerful investigation tool for resolving the cold cases","volume":"12","author":"Cholistani","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2025.112968","article-title":"Genomic profiling of a six-generation patrilineal family of the Ming-Qing dynasties in China","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ge, J., and Budowle, B. (2020). How many familial relationship testing results could be wrong?. PLoS Genet., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1008929"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1080\/15265161.2018.1556514","article-title":"Ethical guidelines for DNA testing in migrant family reunification","volume":"19","author":"Farahany","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Bioeth."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kidd, K.K., and Pakstis, A.J. (2022). State of the art for microhaplotypes. Genes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes13081322"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scijus.2025.101301","article-title":"Forensic applications of compound genetic markers: Trends and future directions","volume":"65","author":"Shabalala","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Justice"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20220077","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-4685-gmb-2022-0077","article-title":"Applications of massively parallel sequencing in forensic genetics","volume":"45","author":"Carratto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2025.103224","article-title":"MixDeR: A SNP mixture deconvolution workflow for forensic genetic genealogy","volume":"76","author":"Mitchell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.108.100214","article-title":"Parentage and sibship inference from multilocus genotype data under polygamy","volume":"181","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2025.149666","article-title":"Forensic application research of kinship identification disclosed by genetic polymorphisms of 150 loci in three panels","volume":"965","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.3325\/cmj.2024.65.249","article-title":"Dense single nucleotide polymorphism testing revolutionizes scope and degree of certainty for source attribution in forensic investigations","volume":"65","author":"Mandape","year":"2024","journal-title":"Croat. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2025.112647","article-title":"Resolving kinship degrees with identity-by-descent coefficients: Limits and insights from a simulation study","volume":"377","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kruijver, M. (2025). An upper bound on the power of DNA to distinguish pedigree relationships. Genes, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16050492"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsigen.2024.103090","article-title":"Pairwise kinship inference and pedigree reconstruction using 91 microhaplotypes","volume":"72","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Genet."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiret, M., and Hospital, F. (2017). Blocks of chromosomes identical by descent in a population: Models and predictions. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187416"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6130","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19588-x","article-title":"Identity-by-descent detection across 487,409 British samples reveals fine scale population structure and ultra-rare variant associations","volume":"11","author":"Kalantzis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, G., Wei, L.H., and Wang, M. (2023). Editorial: Forensic investigative genetic genealogy and fine-scale structure of human populations. Front. Genet., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2022.1067865"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e51810","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.51810","article-title":"Attacks on genetic privacy via uploads to genealogical databases","volume":"9","author":"Edge","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/16\/7386\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T04:19:32Z","timestamp":1787199572000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/16\/7386"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27167386"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27167386","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]}}}