{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T05:22:46Z","timestamp":1787376166747,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787184000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University","award":["[RC(GG)202010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["[RC(GG)202010"]}]},{"award":["[RC(GG)202010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["[RC(GG)202010"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03aq7kf18","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Photodynamic therapy (PDT) combines a photosensitizer (PS), light, and molecular oxygen to generate cytotoxic reactive species, but nominally similar regimens can produce different biological responses because prescribed inputs do not directly specify the biologically active exposure state. Here, this intermediate state is treated as a multidimensional profile defined by PS localization and photoactive availability, the intratissue light field, oxygen dynamics, and vascular conditions at illumination. The relative contributions of direct tumor-cell injury, vascular damage, inflammatory signaling, and adaptive immune modulation also depend on drug\u2013light interval (DLI), treatment sequence, vascular architecture, and tumor\u2013host context. This critical narrative review applies a parameter\u2013exposure state\u2013mechanism\u2013endpoint framework to oncologic PDT. It distinguishes spatially restricted primary photochemical injury from downstream multicellular effects and appraises the evidentiary thresholds for immunogenic cell death (ICD) and systemic immune claims. It also proposes reporting considerations and translational priorities to improve study comparability. PDT mechanisms should be interpreted against measurable treatment parameters rather than presumed from a PS label or prescribed dose alone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27167465","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T16:05:19Z","timestamp":1787241919000},"page":"7465","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Context-Dependent Mechanisms of Oncologic Photodynamic Therapy: A Framework Linking Treatment Parameters to Cellular, Vascular, and Immune Responses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2629-4240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuewu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreas and Liver Transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surgical Critical Care and Life Support, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xujia","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreas and Liver Transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surgical Critical Care and Life Support, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengbo","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreas and Liver Transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surgical Critical Care and Life Support, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongmei","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreas and Liver Transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surgical Critical Care and Life Support, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhangyu","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreas and Liver Transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surgical Critical Care and Life Support, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junyi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreas and Liver Transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surgical Critical Care and Life Support, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"An","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreas and Liver Transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surgical Critical Care and Life Support, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710004, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc1071","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy for cancer","volume":"3","author":"Dolmans","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-020-0410-2","article-title":"Clinical development and potential of photothermal and photodynamic therapies for cancer","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Straten, D., Mashayekhi, V., De Bruijn, H., Oliveira, S., and Robinson, D. (2017). Oncologic Photodynamic Therapy: Basic Principles, Current Clinical Status and Future Directions. Cancers, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers9020019"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc1894","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy and anti-tumour immunity","volume":"6","author":"Castano","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/S1572-1000(05)00007-4","article-title":"Mechanisms in photodynamic therapy: Part one\u2014Photosensitizers, photochemistry and cellular localization","volume":"1","author":"Castano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photodiagn. Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1572-1000(05)00030-X","article-title":"Mechanisms in photodynamic therapy: Part two\u2014Cellular signaling, cell metabolism and modes of cell death","volume":"2","author":"Castano","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photodiagn. Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1007\/s10103-008-0620-9","article-title":"Effect of drug\u2013light interval on the mode of action of Photofrin photodynamic therapy in a mouse tumor model","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lasers Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2795","DOI":"10.1021\/cr900300p","article-title":"Imaging and Photodynamic Therapy: Mechanisms, Monitoring, and Optimization","volume":"110","author":"Celli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mroz, P., Szokalska, A., Wu, M.X., and Hamblin, M.R. (2010). Photodynamic therapy of tumors can lead to development of systemic antigen-specific immune response. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0015194"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2026.119584","article-title":"Molecular response of photodynamic therapy in oncology: A comprehensive review","volume":"200","author":"Nkune","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dudzik, T., Doma\u0144ski, I., and Makuch, S. (2024). The impact of photodynamic therapy on immune system in cancer\u2014An update. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1335920"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2226535","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402X.2023.2226535","article-title":"Trial watch: An update of clinical advances in photodynamic therapy and its immunoadjuvant properties for cancer treatment","volume":"12","author":"Penetra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alekseeva, P., Makarov, V., Efendiev, K., Shiryaev, A., Reshetov, I., and Loschenov, V. (2024). Devices and Methods for Dosimetry of Personalized Photodynamic Therapy of Tumors: A Review on Recent Trends. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16132484"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.17613","article-title":"AAPM Task Group Report 274: Fluence rate dosimetry for photodynamic therapy (PDT)","volume":"52","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.200900101","article-title":"Explicit dosimetry for photodynamic therapy: Macroscopic singlet oxygen modeling","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biophotonics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6488","DOI":"10.1039\/C6CS00616G","article-title":"Overcoming the Achilles\u2019 heel of photodynamic therapy","volume":"45","author":"Fan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1011-1344(96)07428-3","article-title":"Photophysical and photobiological processes in the photodynamic therapy of tumours","volume":"39","author":"Ochsner","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s10103-008-0539-1","article-title":"Photophysics and photochemistry of photodynamic therapy: Fundamental aspects","volume":"24","author":"Plaetzer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lasers Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.07.049","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy\u2014Mechanisms, photosensitizers and combinations","volume":"106","author":"Kwiatkowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1039\/C2CS35216H","article-title":"BODIPY dyes in photodynamic therapy","volume":"42","author":"Kamkaew","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13454","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.1c00381","article-title":"Recent Strategies to Develop Innovative Photosensitizers for Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"121","author":"Pham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.8b00211","article-title":"Transition Metal Complexes and Photodynamic Therapy from a Tumor-Centered Approach: Challenges, Opportunities, and Highlights from the Development of TLD1433","volume":"119","author":"Monro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1039\/C9CS00129H","article-title":"The unique features and promises of phthalocyanines as advanced photosensitisers for photodynamic therapy of cancer","volume":"49","author":"Lo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.0c00606","article-title":"Heavy-Atom-Free Photosensitizers: From Molecular Design to Applications in the Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer","volume":"54","author":"Nguyen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2727","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.7b00180","article-title":"Critical Overview of the Use of Ru(II) Polypyridyl Complexes as Photosensitizers in One-Photon and Two-Photon Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"50","author":"Heinemann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2011.05.023","article-title":"Major determinants of photoinduced cell death: Subcellular localization versus photosensitization efficiency","volume":"51","author":"Oliveira","year":"2011","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.1021\/cr5004198","article-title":"Nanoparticles in Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"115","author":"Lucky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2008.08.003","article-title":"Nanoparticles in photodynamic therapy: An emerging paradigm","volume":"60","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S1011-1344(01)00267-6","article-title":"State of the art in the delivery of photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy","volume":"66","author":"Konan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdpdt.2010.02.001","article-title":"Oncologic photodynamic therapy photosensitizers: A clinical review","volume":"7","author":"Allison","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photodiagn. Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2006.06.006","article-title":"Guidelines on the use of photodynamic therapy for nonmelanoma skin cancer: An international consensus","volume":"56","author":"Braathen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2007.07.036","article-title":"Vascular Targeted Photodynamic Therapy With Palladium-Bacteriopheophorbide Photosensitizer for Recurrent Prostate Cancer Following Definitive Radiation Therapy: Assessment of Safety and Treatment Response","volume":"178","author":"Trachtenberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1097\/JU.0000000000003202","article-title":"Final Results of a Phase I Trial of WST-11 (TOOKAD Soluble) Vascular-targeted Photodynamic Therapy for Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma","volume":"209","author":"Yip","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2007.07.001","article-title":"Molecular effectors of multiple cell death pathways initiated by photodynamic therapy","volume":"1776","author":"Buytaert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2516","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers3022516","article-title":"Cell Death Pathways in Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer","volume":"3","author":"Mroz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancers"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1039\/C7CS00594F","article-title":"Supramolecular photosensitizers rejuvenate photodynamic therapy","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3518","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.6b00007","article-title":"Size-Controlled Synthesis of Porphyrinic Metal\u2013Organic Framework and Functionalization for Targeted Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"138","author":"Park","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7860","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0343095","article-title":"Ceramic-Based Nanoparticles Entrapping Water-Insoluble Photosensitizing Anticancer Drugs: A Novel Drug\u2212Carrier System for Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"125","author":"Roy","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2008.07.007","article-title":"Nanoparticles as vehicles for delivery of photodynamic therapy agents","volume":"26","author":"Bechet","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1606314","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201606314","article-title":"Metal-Organic Framework Nanoparticles in Photodynamic Therapy: Current Status and Perspectives","volume":"27","author":"Lismont","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10643","DOI":"10.1021\/ja801631c","article-title":"Highly Efficient Drug Delivery with Gold Nanoparticle Vectors for in Vivo Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer","volume":"130","author":"Cheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202210920","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.202210920","article-title":"Super Light-Sensitive Photosensitizer Nanoparticles for Improved Photodynamic Therapy against Solid Tumors","volume":"61","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1039\/b108586g","article-title":"The role of apoptosis in response to photodynamic therapy: What, where, why, and how","volume":"1","author":"Oleinick","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2021.102056","article-title":"Non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation initiated by photodynamic therapy drives a distinct ferroptosis-like cell death pathway","volume":"45","author":"Shui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1039\/c3pp50333j","article-title":"ER stress, autophagy and immunogenic cell death in photodynamic therapy-induced anti-cancer immune responses","volume":"13","author":"Garg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-024-07283-4","article-title":"NIR-715 photodynamic therapy induces immunogenic cancer cell death by enhancing the endoplasmic reticulum stress response","volume":"15","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.03.042","article-title":"Ferroptosis: An Iron-Dependent Form of Nonapoptotic Cell Death","volume":"149","author":"Dixon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1186\/s40425-019-0826-3","article-title":"Immunogenic cell death induced by a new photodynamic therapy based on photosens and photodithazine","volume":"7","author":"Turubanova","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdpdt.2024.104104","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy inhibits cancer progression and induces ferroptosis and apoptosis by targeting P53\/GPX4\/SLC7A11 signaling pathways in cholangiocarcinoma","volume":"47","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Photodiagn. Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1002\/lsm.23857","article-title":"Study on the Synergistic Mechanism of Photodynamic Therapy Combined With Ferroptosis Inducer to Induce Ferroptosis in Cholangiocarcinoma","volume":"56","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lasers Surg. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranon.2024.102234","article-title":"Hypericin mediated photodynamic therapy induces ferroptosis via inhibiting the AKT\/mTORC1\/GPX4 axis in cholangiocarcinoma","volume":"52","author":"An","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transl. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sleptsova, E., Khuzina, A., Sachkova, D., Yuzhakova, D., Sannova, Y., Yashin, K., Peskova, N., Lermontova, S., Shchechkin, I., and Klapshina, L. (2026). Ferroptosis with Contributions from Apoptosis and Necroptosis in Porphyrazine III-Based Photodynamic Therapy of Primary Human Gliomas. Pharmaceutics, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18060705"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11522","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201805138","article-title":"Innovative Strategies for Hypoxic-Tumor Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"57","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2103978","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202103978","article-title":"Conquering the Hypoxia Limitation for Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"33","author":"Wan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14851","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.8b08658","article-title":"Near-Infrared Light-Initiated Molecular Superoxide Radical Generator: Rejuvenating Photodynamic Therapy against Hypoxic Tumors","volume":"140","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8785","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9785","article-title":"Perfluorocarbon nanoparticles enhance reactive oxygen levels and tumour growth inhibition in photodynamic therapy","volume":"6","author":"Cheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8715","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b04156","article-title":"Carbon-Dot-Decorated Carbon Nitride Nanoparticles for Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy against Hypoxic Tumor via Water Splitting","volume":"10","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colcom.2022.100598","article-title":"Oxygen-economizing liposomes for synergistic photodynamic and starvation therapy","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Colloid Interface Sci. Commun."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.1992.tb04222.x","article-title":"How Does Photodynamic Therapy Work?","volume":"55","author":"Henderson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.11-9-1034","article-title":"Photodynamic Therapy in Oncology","volume":"11","author":"Triesscheijn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(16)30661-1","article-title":"Padeliporfin vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy versus active surveillance in men with low-risk prostate cancer (CLIN1001 PCM301): An open-label, phase 3, randomised controlled trial","volume":"18","author":"Azzouzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madar-Balakirski, N., Tempel-Brami, C., Kalchenko, V., Brenner, O., Varon, D., Scherz, A., and Salomon, Y. (2010). Permanent Occlusion of Feeding Arteries and Draining Veins in Solid Mouse Tumors by Vascular Targeted Photodynamic Therapy (VTP) with Tookad. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0010282"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e955691","DOI":"10.4161\/21624011.2014.955691","article-title":"Consensus guidelines for the detection of immunogenic cell death","volume":"3","author":"Kepp","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chou, W., Sun, T., Peng, N., Wang, Z., Chen, D., Qiu, H., and Zhao, H. (2023). Photodynamic Therapy-Induced Anti-Tumor Immunity: Influence Factors and Synergistic Enhancement Strategies. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15112617"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R61","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/53\/9\/R01","article-title":"The physics, biophysics and technology of photodynamic therapy","volume":"53","author":"Wilson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1111\/php.13219","article-title":"Light Sources and Dosimetry Techniques for Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"96","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.1998.231","article-title":"Reduction of tumour oxygenation during and after photodynamic therapy in vivo: Effects of fluence rate","volume":"77","author":"Sitnik","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.2007.00139.x","article-title":"Effect of Photosensitizer Dose on Fluence Rate Responses to Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"83","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alonso-Mtz de Salinas, L., Garcia-Mouronte, E., Naharro-Rodriguez, J., Perez-Gonzalez, L.A., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Guarino, M. (2025). Optimization of Photodynamic Therapy in Dermatology: The Role of Light Fractionation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26168054"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdpdt.2023.103440","article-title":"Oxygen (and lack thereof) in photodynamic therapy","volume":"41","author":"Nonell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Photodiagn. Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Przygoda, M., Bartusik-Aebisher, D., Dynarowicz, K., Cie\u015blar, G., Kawczyk-Krupka, A., and Aebisher, D. (2023). Cellular Mechanisms of Singlet Oxygen in Photodynamic Therapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242316890"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, S., Guo, X., Wang, S., Wei, Z., Huang, D., Zhang, X., Zhu, T.C., and Huang, Z. (2024). Singlet Oxygen in Photodynamic Therapy. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17101274"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2021.100306","article-title":"Photoacoustic nanodroplets for oxygen enhanced photodynamic therapy of cancer","volume":"25","author":"Xavierselvan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1039\/B915149B","article-title":"The role of porphyrin chemistry in tumor imaging and photodynamic therapy","volume":"40","author":"Ethirajan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"063802","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.25.6.063802","article-title":"Smartphone fluorescence imager for quantitative dosimetry of protoporphyrin-IX-based photodynamic therapy in skin","volume":"25","author":"Ruiz","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirillin, M., Khilov, A., Kurakina, D., Orlova, A., Perekatova, V., Shishkova, V., Malygina, A., Mironycheva, A., Shlivko, I., and Gamayunov, S. (2021). Dual-Wavelength Fluorescence Monitoring of Photodynamic Therapy: From Analytical Models to Clinical Studies. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13225807"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S34118","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.30.S3.S34118","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy dosimetry: Current status and the emerging challenge of immune stimulation","volume":"30","author":"Wilson","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"018001","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.29.1.018001","article-title":"Clinical PDT dose dosimetry for pleural Photofrin-mediated photodynamic therapy","volume":"29","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, H., Ong, Y., Kim, M.M., Dimofte, A., Singhal, S., Cengel, K.A., Yodh, A.G., and Zhu, T.C. (2024). A Comprehensive Study of Reactive Oxygen Species Explicit Dosimetry for Pleural Photodynamic Therapy. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13121436"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1021\/nn102722z","article-title":"Gold Nanorod\u2212Photosensitizer Complex for Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging and Photodynamic\/Photothermal Therapy In Vivo","volume":"5","author":"Jang","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5104","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201200650","article-title":"Light-Triggered Theranostics Based on Photosensitizer-Conjugated Carbon Dots for Simultaneous Enhanced-Fluorescence Imaging and Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5320","DOI":"10.1021\/nn4011686","article-title":"Photosensitizer-Loaded Gold Vesicles with Strong Plasmonic Coupling Effect for Imaging-Guided Photothermal\/Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"7","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.200900692","article-title":"Mesoporous-Silica-Coated Up-Conversion Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"5","author":"Qian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3349","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11269-8","article-title":"Targeting photodynamic and photothermal therapy to the endoplasmic reticulum enhances immunogenic cancer cell death","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.1158\/2767-9764.CRC-22-0494","article-title":"Surgical Inflammation Alters Immune Response to Intraoperative Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"3","author":"Davis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-026-04347-6","article-title":"Photodynamic priming with Vitamin D and ALA-based PDT induces intratumoral immune cell recruitment and signaling pathway activation in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma","volume":"75","author":"Shen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beltr\u00e1n Hern\u00e1ndez, I., Yu, Y., Ossendorp, F., Korbelik, M., and Oliveira, S. (2020). Preclinical and Clinical Evidence of Immune Responses Triggered in Oncologic Photodynamic Therapy: Clinical Recommendations. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9020333"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7979","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c00891","article-title":"Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapies: Synergy Opportunities for Nanomedicine","volume":"17","author":"Overchuk","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5670","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.8b01072","article-title":"Nanoscale Metal\u2013Organic Framework Overcomes Hypoxia for Photodynamic Therapy Primed Cancer Immunotherapy","volume":"140","author":"Lan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(04)01529-3","article-title":"The present and future role of photodynamic therapy in cancer treatment","volume":"5","author":"Brown","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bj.2025.100889","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy-induced inflammation and adverse effects: An updated review","volume":"49","author":"Moloudi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomed. J."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1177\/153303460500400308","article-title":"A Review of Progress in Clinical Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"4","author":"Huang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Technol. Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gastro.2003.07.015","article-title":"Successful photodynamic therapy for nonresectable cholangiocarcinoma: A randomized prospective study","volume":"125","author":"Ortner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1142\/S1088424624300027","article-title":"Clinical photodynamic therapy: The evolution of photodynamic therapy treatment of head and neck cancer","volume":"28","author":"Biel","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Porphyr. Phthalocyanines"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2024.12.050","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy: Clinical applications in dermatology","volume":"94","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4463","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.7b00715","article-title":"Near-Infrared-Triggered Photodynamic Therapy with Multitasking Upconversion Nanoparticles in Combination with Checkpoint Blockade for Immunotherapy of Colorectal Cancer","volume":"11","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605021","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201605021","article-title":"Self-Assembled Peptide- and Protein-Based Nanomaterials for Antitumor Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy","volume":"29","author":"Abbas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/16\/7465\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T04:23:27Z","timestamp":1787372607000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/16\/7465"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27167465"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27167465","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]]}}}