{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T13:11:27Z","timestamp":1788873087172,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ovarian cancer remains a major cause of gynecological cancer-related mortality, highlighting the need for novel therapeutic strategies capable of enhancing antitumor activity while targeting multiple mechanisms involved in tumor progression. Everolimus, an inhibitor of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway, and carboplatin are established antineoplastic agents with distinct mechanisms of action, whereas astaxanthin is a bioactive carotenoid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential anticancer properties. This study compared the individual and pairwise combination effects of carboplatin, everolimus, and astaxanthin on cell viability, migratory capacity, and inflammatory and tumor-associated biomarkers in SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells. Human SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells were cultured under standard conditions and exposed to different concentrations of carboplatin, everolimus, and astaxanthin, either individually or as pairwise two-drug combinations, for 24\u201372 h. Cell viability was assessed using the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Cell migration was evaluated using a scratch wound-healing assay. Based on the experimental treatment protocol, 100 nM everolimus, 100 \u03bcM carboplatin, and 100 \u03bcM astaxanthin, alone and in combination, were further evaluated for their effects on \u03b2-defensin 1, \u03b2-defensin 2, \u03b1-defensin 1, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-\u03b1), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1\u03b2) levels. Biomarker concentrations were determined by ELISA. Experiments were independently performed in triplicate. Everolimus, carboplatin, and astaxanthin produced concentration- and time-dependent alterations in SKOV3 cell viability, with more pronounced cytotoxic effects generally observed following prolonged exposure. The pairwise combination treatments also substantially affected cell viability, particularly at later experimental time points. Assessment of migratory capacity demonstrated significant differences in wound closure among treatment groups at 24, 48, and 72 h (p = 0.0224, p = 0.0155, and p = 0.0028, respectively), indicating a time-dependent inhibitory effect on SKOV3 cell migration. Treatment with carboplatin, everolimus, and astaxanthin, individually or in pairwise combinations, also significantly modulated \u03b2-defensin 1, \u03b2-defensin 2, \u03b1-defensin 1, TNF-\u03b1, and IL-1\u03b2 levels compared with control cells, with the magnitude and direction of these changes varying according to treatment regimen and exposure duration. Everolimus, carboplatin, and astaxanthin exerted significant time- and treatment-dependent effects on the viability and migratory behavior of SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells and markedly modulated defensin and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses. The findings demonstrate distinct treatment- and time-dependent responses to the individual agents and their pairwise combinations in SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells. These observations represent preliminary comparative in vitro effects rather than evidence of pharmacological synergy or therapeutic benefit. Further mechanistic studies using additional ovarian cancer cell lines, formal drug interaction analyses, and in vivo models are required to establish the biological and potential therapeutic relevance of these treatment combinations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27187995","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T12:51:48Z","timestamp":1788871908000},"page":"7995","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative Effects of Pairwise Combinations of Carboplatin, Everolimus, and Astaxanthin on Cell Viability, Migration, and Inflammatory Biomarkers in SKOV3 Ovarian Cancer Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Mete Hakan","family":"Karalok","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Atlas University, Istanbul 34408, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8435-6797","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Burcu","family":"Biltekin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Atlas University, Istanbul 34408, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Ebru","family":"Karci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, Atlas University, Istanbul 34408, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Hafize","family":"Uzun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Atlas University, Istanbul 34408, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"229","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. 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