{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T13:02:50Z","timestamp":1790859770976,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examined Toll-like receptors (TLRs)\/chemokine receptors (CCRs) gene expression levels in HIV-infected individuals at different stages of HIV infection. It has been demonstrated that in the advanced stages of HIV infection, aggravated by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) infection, there was a significant increase in TLR2, TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9 expression levels (181-, 8.4-, 15-, and 3.4-fold, respectively), compared to the early stages of the disease, which also correlated with an increase in viral load. The advanced stages of HIV infection were also characterized by an increased CCR5 expression level (8.08-fold, p &lt; 0.0001) on patients\u2019 mononuclear cells, which was not observed in the early stages of the disease. A positive correlation was found between the enhanced levels of TLR2\/TLR4 and CCR5 expression, which facilitates the entry of HIV-1 into the cell (r = 0.03564, p = 0.0423 for TLR2\/TLR4; r = 0.3793, p = 0.0269 for CCR5). The advanced stages of HIV infection were characterized by a sharp increase in the expression levels of CXCR4 and CCR8 co-receptors which also play an important role in the entry of HIV-1 into the host cell (more than 537-fold, p = 0.0006, and 5000-fold, p = 0.004, respectively). At the advanced stages of HIV infection, a positive correlation was found between increased production of TLR and CCR and elevated expression of IL-12 and IL-18. These factors contribute to virus persistence and chronic immune activation observed in patients with opportunistic infections. Thus, the obtained data indicate that HIV-1 in the advanced stages of infection induces an increased TLRs and CCRs expression, which, together with enhanced viral production, leads to chronic inflammation and can contribute to tissue damage and exacerbate the disease\u2019s progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27188161","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T12:09:51Z","timestamp":1789387791000},"page":"8161","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Expression of Toll-like Receptors and Chemokine Receptors in the Early and Advanced Stages of HIV Infection Aggravated by Mycobacterium tuberculosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0857-9358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Nosik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccines and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8430-1975","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizaveta","family":"Bystritskaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccines and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Konstantin","family":"Ryzhov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccines and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0921-3629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizaveta","family":"Kostyuchenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccines and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119048 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5323-2377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Kuzina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccines and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Alexey","family":"Kravtchenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, Rospotrebnadzor, 111123 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Sergei","family":"Sevostyanihin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"G.A. Zaharyan Moscow Tuberculosis Clinic, 125466 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Igor","family":"Demenok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"G.A. Zaharyan Moscow Tuberculosis Clinic, 125466 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Vitaly","family":"Zverev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccines and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119048 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Oxana","family":"Svitich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccines and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119048 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2010.0302","article-title":"Up-regulation of TLR2 and TLR4 in dendritic cells in response to HIV type 1 and coinfection with opportunistic pathogens","volume":"27","author":"Arteaga","year":"2011","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2008.02043.x","article-title":"Immune dysregulation in human immunodeficiency virus infection: Know it, fix it, prevent it?","volume":"265","author":"Boasso","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Intern. 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