{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T14:02:18Z","timestamp":1790863338026,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":167,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The female reproductive system, particularly the ovary, exhibits a high sensitivity to the effects of environmental xenobiotics. This group of substances includes micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) as well as trace elements. This literature review summarises the current knowledge on the individual and combined effects of MNPs and trace elements\u2014including essential bioelements (zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn)) and toxic elements (cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg))\u2014on ovarian physiology and clinical conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), gonadal dysfunction and infertility. Essential trace elements play irreplaceable roles as enzyme cofactors (e.g., superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX)) and transcriptional regulators; however, their biological action is confined to a narrow homeostatic window, within which both deficiency and excess disrupt cellular redox status and the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary \u2013gonadal axis. The effect of toxic heavy metals is different; these exhibit threshold-independent cytotoxic, genotoxic and endocrine-disrupting effects, inducing apoptosis of granulosa cells, endoplasmic reticulum stress and the silencing of steroidogenic genes (e.g., Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), CYP11A1, CYP19A1) via epigenetic modifications, which accelerates the depletion of the ovarian reserve (measured by a decline in anti-M\u00fcllerian hormone (AMH)). Concurrently, MNPs overcome biological barriers and accumulate within the ovarian microenvironment, thereby inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent apoptosis, NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis, cytoskeletal disruption, and tissue fibrosis. A key element of this review is the identification of mechanistic convergence and potential toxic synergism between MNPs and heavy metals. Co-exposure enhances toxin retention within cells by inhibiting ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, potentiates mitochondrial depolarisation, and activates protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase\u2013eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha (PERK\/eIF2\u03b1) stress signalling. Understanding these shared molecular pathways forms the basis for assessing multi-component risk in female reproductive toxicology and for developing targeted protective strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27188306","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T13:18:26Z","timestamp":1790860706000},"page":"8306","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Effects of Microplastics and Trace Elements on Ovarian Function and Pathology: A Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Bryli\u0144ski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland"},{"name":"Doctoral School, Medical University of Lublin, Chod\u017aki 7, 20-093 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5140-0990","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Bryli\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Correct, Clinical and Imaging Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, ul. Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8187-7394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jolanta","family":"Sado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Scientific Society of Correct, Clinical and Imaging Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, ul. Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kacper","family":"Kra\u015bnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Scientific Society of Correct, Clinical and Imaging Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, ul. 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Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Flieger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland"},{"name":"Doctoral School, Medical University of Lublin, Chod\u017aki 7, 20-093 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6881-3161","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jolanta","family":"Flieger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chod\u017aki 41 (Collegium Pharmaceutcum), 20-093 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4184-9305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Teresi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8714-7627","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alicja","family":"Forma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Correct, Clinical and Imaging Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, ul. 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