{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:05:13Z","timestamp":1792789513159,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":148,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Centre","award":["13050112"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13050112"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02n85j827","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["13050112"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13050112"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02n85j827","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) of the genera Heterorhabditis and Steinernema are insecticidal agents used against diverse groups of key insect pests. Yet, their application cost and reliability frequently relegate them as niche products in the biopesticide market. A full spectrum of developments is being addressed to solve the two issues. Among them, molecular and non-molecular methods play a significant role in improving their biocontrol traits. Relevant programs usually comprise selection, hybridization, and\/or mutagenesis\/genetic engineering techniques. Progress to boost EPN-biocontrol traits like infectivity, virulence, survival\/persistence, and co-optimization of EPNs and their symbionts is discussed herein, showing possible molecular processes as bases for further optimization. Trait improvement may also impact other parts of the cascade that lead to positive outputs such as increasing EPN efficiency or negative trade-offs like decreased baseline fitness. Thus, understanding related molecular processes would help to exploit\/strengthen positive ones and fix weaknesses. The purposes of advanced molecular techniques like RNA interference, qPCR, CRISPR-Cas9, and RNA sequencing and their contribution in EPN improvement, as well as their main limitation and validation, are presented. Also, ligand\u2013target interactions of relevant symbionts are amplified to be scalable for efficient exploitation of their secondary metabolites, which are toxic to key hosts. Using reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) gave molecular cues for understanding how adding dimethyl sulfoxide to the culture medium can boost commercial EPN production, a novel technology for increasing such production. Other molecular cues of certain plant volatiles demonstrated increased EPN efficacy by directing EPN behavior and improving infectivity. The pros and cons of traditional molecular techniques applied on EPNs are presented for their optimal usage. Yet, advanced molecular tools like qPCR analysis combined with traditional ones can offer novel insights to elucidate complicated soil biotic interactions and detect abiotic elements that modify EPN effectiveness. Modern techniques like sequencing of the whole nuclear and mitochondrial genome have rightly resolved Heterorhabditis spp. phylogenetic relationships, avoiding former inconsistent tree topologies mostly due to using different gene markers. Other knowledge gaps along with a forward-looking roadmap to catalysts for future studies over the next years are highlighted. Expanding advanced molecular techniques such as metabarcoding can offer perfect EPN uses and secure the best EPN\u2013host matching for economical and sustainable agricultural practices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27198596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T14:36:34Z","timestamp":1790346994000},"page":"8596","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Advanced Genetic and Molecular Techniques for Improving Biocontrol Traits of Entomopathogenic Nematodes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4731-5988","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahfouz M. M.","family":"Abd-Elgawad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Plant Pathology Department, National Research Centre, El-Behooth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.24425\/jppr.2025.155790","article-title":"Nanoencapsulations of essential oils and microbial toxins as insecticides: Case studies for their further optimization","volume":"65","author":"Salama","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Plant Prot. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.emcon.2024.100410","article-title":"A comprehensive review on environmental and human health impacts of chemical pesticide usage","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emerg. Contam."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abd-Elgawad, M.M.M., Askary, T.H., and Coupland, J. (2017). Biocontrol Agents: Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes, CABI. Available online: https:\/\/www.cabidigitallibrary.org\/doi\/book\/10.1079\/9781786390004.0000.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781786390004.0000"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shapiro-llan, D.I., and Lewis, E.E. (2024). Entomopathogenic Nematodes as Biological Control Agents, CABI Publishing.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781800620322.0000"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shehata, I.E., Hammam, M.M.A., and Abd-Elgawad, M.M.M. (2021). Effects of inorganic fertilizers on virulence of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema glaseri and peanut germination under field conditions. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11050945"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2018.02.009","article-title":"Application methods of Steinernema feltiae, Xenorhabdus bovienii and Purpureocillium lilacinum to control root-knot nematodes in greenhouse tomato systems","volume":"108","author":"Kepenekci","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-022-05808-4","article-title":"Direct antagonistic effect of entomopathogenic nematodes and their symbiotic bacteria on root-knot nematodes migration toward tomato roots","volume":"484","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abd-Elgawad, M.M.M. (2023). Optimizing entomopathogenic nematode genetics and applications for the integrated management of horticultural pests. Horticulturae, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/horticulturae9080865"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koppenh\u00f6fer, A.M., Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., and Hiltpold, I. (2020). Entomopathogenic nematodes in sustainable food production. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fsufs.2020.00125"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarasco, E., Fanelli, E., Salvemini, C., El-Khoury, Y., Troccoli, A., Vovlas, A., and De Luca, F. (2023). Entomopathogenic nematodes and their symbiotic bacteria: From genes to field uses. Front. Insect Sci., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/finsc.2023.1195254"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"206","article-title":"Entomopathogenic nematode production and application technology","volume":"44","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glazer, I., Shapiro Ilan, D.I., and Sternberg, P. (2022). Genetic improvement of beneficial organisms. Nematodes as Model Organisms, CAB International.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781789248814.0000"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"247","article-title":"Genetic variability among strains of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinemema feltiae","volume":"21","author":"Gaugler","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-2011(90)90151-U","article-title":"Fitness of a genetically improved entomopathogenic nematode","volume":"56","author":"Gaugler","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7348.1993.tb04939.x","article-title":"Evaluation of a genetically selected strain of Steinemema feltiae against the mushroom sciarid Lycoriella mali","volume":"123","author":"Grewal","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann. Appl. Biol."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Molina, C., Sumaya, N.H.N., Godina, G., Singh, R., Kirsch, C., Vandenbossche, B., D\u00f6rfler, V., Barg, M., and Ehlers, R.-U. (2022, January 1\u20135). Extending the survival of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora through phenotype selection and marker-assisted breeding. Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Nematology, Antibes Juan-les-Pins, France."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Simoes, N., Boemare, N., and Ehlers, R.-U. (1998). Evaluation and selection for enhanced nematode pathogenicity against Tipula spp.. Pathogenicity of Entomopathogenic Nematodes Versus Insect Defence Mechanisms: Impact on Selection of Virulent Strains, European Commission Publications."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Vandenbossche, B., Barg, M., Postel, H., Ladurner, E., Piergiacomi, M., and Ehlers, R.-U. (2022, January 1\u20135). Efficacy of species mixtures of entomopathogenic nematodes against different larval stages of cockchafers. Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Nematology, Antibes Juan-les-Pins, France."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1163\/004525996X00082","article-title":"Biological characteristics of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis sp. IS-5: A heat tolerant isolate from Israel","volume":"42","author":"Glazer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nematologica"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1163\/005525998X00098","article-title":"Infectivity and specificity of Canadian and Czech isolates of Steinernema kraussei (Steiner, 1923) to some insect pests at low temperatures in the laboratory","volume":"44","author":"Mracek","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nematologica"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1080\/09583159730578","article-title":"Genetic enhancement of nematicide resistance in entomopathogenic nematodes","volume":"7","author":"Glazer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biocontrol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Ehlers, R.-U., Molina, C., Vandenbossche, B., and Toepfer, S. (2022, January 1\u20135). Diabrotica v. virgifera management using genetically improved strains of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Nematology, Antibes Juan-les-Pins, France."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocontrol.2005.05.006","article-title":"Targeted improvement of Steinernema carpocapsae for control of the pecan weevil, Curculio caryae (Horn) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) through hybridization and bacterial transfer","volume":"34","author":"Stuart","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Cont."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1006\/bcon.1996.0488","article-title":"Genetic improvement of heat tolerance in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora through hybridization","volume":"8","author":"Shapiro","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biol. Control"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/s10526-010-9271-4","article-title":"Improvement of heat and desiccation tolerance in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora through cross-breeding of tolerant strains and successive genetic selection","volume":"55","author":"Mukaka","year":"2010","journal-title":"BioControl"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abd-Elgawad, M.M.M., Askary, T.H., and Coupland, J. (2017). Genetic improvement of entomopathogenic nematodes for enhanced biological control. Biocontrol Agents: Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes, CAB International.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781786390004.0000"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"286","article-title":"Comparative disc-electrophoretic protein analyses of selected Meloidogyne, Ditylenchus, Heterodera and Aphelenchus spp.","volume":"2","author":"Dickson","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"249","article-title":"Pathogenicity and toxicity of entomopathogenic nematodes isolated from Egypt on Spodoptera littoralis and Agrotis ipsilon","volume":"16","author":"Saleh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Egypt. Acad. J. Biol. Sci. (B Zool.)"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, R.T., Contreras, M.S., Vlisidou, I., Amos, M.R., Yang, G., Mu\u00f1oz-Berbel, X., Upadhyay, A., Potter, U.J., Joyce, S.A., and Ciche, T.A. (2010). Photorhabdus adhesion modification protein (Pam) binds extracellular polysaccharide and alters bacterial attachment. BMC Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-10-141"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"4280","article-title":"Effect of transgenic cotton expressing Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2 protein on infectivity of the entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema karii and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora","volume":"8","author":"Karuri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Afr. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"3505","article-title":"Molecular identification of entomopathogenic nematodes-an overview","volume":"12","author":"Devi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharma Innov. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(98)00168-4","article-title":"Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis: Avaluable technique for providing answers to problems in parasite systematics","volume":"29","author":"Rews","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygeno.2022.110295","article-title":"Shift from morphological to recent advanced molecular approaches for the identification of nematodes","volume":"114","author":"Nisa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11230-010-9256-9","article-title":"A multilocus approach to assessing co-evolutionary relationships between Steinernema spp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) and their bacterial symbionts Xenorhabdus spp. (\u03b3-Proteobacteria: Enterobacteriaceae)","volume":"77","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Syst. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"301","article-title":"Use of cellulose acetate electrophoresis in the taxonomy of steinernematids (Rhabditida, Rhabditida)","volume":"28","author":"Jagdale","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajek, A.E., and Shapiro\u2013Ilan, D. (2018). Methods for studying the ecology of invertebrate diseases and pathogens. Ecology of Invertebrate Diseases, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119256106.ch1"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"15","article-title":"RFLP analysis of PCR amplified ITS and 26S ribosomal RNA genes of selected entomopathogenic nematode (Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae)","volume":"28","author":"Nasmith","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"404","article-title":"PCR-RFLP pattern analysis of entomopathogenic nematodes isolated from agroecosystem for implicating their genetic diversity","volume":"6","author":"Razia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Munis Entomol. Zool."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abd-Elgawad, M.M.M., Askary, T.H., and Coupland, J. (2017). Molecular systematics and phylogenetic reconstruction of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis. Biocontrol Agents: Entomopathogenic and Slug Parasitic Nematodes, CAB International.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781786390004.0000"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.1992.tb00155.x","article-title":"Applications of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) in molecular ecology","volume":"1","author":"Hadrys","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.5958\/0974-4444.2023.00011.2","article-title":"Microsatellite markers and their utilization for population genetics of plant parasitic and entomopathogenic nematodes","volume":"53","author":"Ahuja","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1163\/15685411-bja10307","article-title":"Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) marker-assisted breeding of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora for improvement of reproductive potential and stress tolerance","volume":"26","author":"Ogaya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nematology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1890\/07-1009.1","article-title":"Establishment, persistence, and introgression of entomopathogenic nematodes in a forest ecosystem","volume":"18","author":"Dillon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2013.03.005","article-title":"High level of genetic diversity among Steinernema monticolum in Korea revealed by single-enzyme amplified fragment length polymorphism","volume":"113","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"100222","article-title":"Characterization and insecticidal potential of native Moroccan bacteria associated with entomopathogenic nematodes against Galleria mellonella","volume":"18","author":"Kallali","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Nat. Pestic. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, K.B., and Hunt, D.J. (2007). Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Systematics, Phylogeny and Bacterial Symbionts, Brill.","DOI":"10.1163\/ej.9789004152939.i-816"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1163\/15685411-bja10181","article-title":"Single nucleotide polymorphism markers in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora associated with virulence at low temperature","volume":"24","author":"Godina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nematology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.278124.123","article-title":"Telomeric repeat evolution in the phylum Nematoda revealed by high-quality genome assemblies and subtelomere structures","volume":"33","author":"Lim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"125","article-title":"Genome evolution in parthenogenetic nematodes shaped by chromosome rearrangements and introgression","volume":"22","author":"Chung","year":"2026","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez, A., Fullaondo, A., and Odriozola, A. (2025). Why are long-read sequencing methods revolutionizing microbiome analysis?. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13081861"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guiglielmoni, N., Villegas, L.I., Kirangwa, J., and Schiffer, P.H. (2024). Revisiting genomes of nonmodel species with long reads yields new insights into their biology and evolution. Front. Genet., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2024.1308527"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shapiro-llan, D.I., and Lewis, E.E. (2024). Genomics of Entomopathogenic Nematodes. Entomopathogenic Nematodes as Biological Control Agents, CAB International.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781800620322.0000"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iyaf170","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/iyaf170","article-title":"Genomes of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema hermaphroditum and its associated bacteria","volume":"231","author":"Schwarz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.21307\/jofnem-2021-047","article-title":"Reclaimed desert habitats favor entomopathogenic nematode and microarthropod abundance compared to ancient farmlands in the Nile Basin","volume":"53","author":"Dritsoulas","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1007\/s43657-022-00048-z","article-title":"A comprehensive review of high throughput phenotyping and machine learning for plant stress phenotyping","volume":"2","author":"Gill","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phenomics"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bbae588","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbae588","article-title":"A gentle introduction to pangenomics","volume":"25","author":"Matthews","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s41938-019-0137-5","article-title":"Comparison of virulence, reproductive potential, and persistence among local Heterorhabditis indica populations for the control of Temnorhynchus baal (Reiche & Saulcy) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Egypt","volume":"29","author":"Shehata","year":"2019","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Biol. Pest Cont."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Hajek, A.E., and Shapiro-Ilann, D.I. (2019). Ecology of invertebrate pathogens: Nematodes. Ecology of Invertebrate Diseases, John Wiley & Sons Ltd."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s41938-025-00864-1","article-title":"Factors influencing the performance of entomopathogenic nematodes: From laboratory to field conditions","volume":"35","author":"Fatimah","year":"2025","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Biol. Pest Cont."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Woodring, J.L., and Kaya, H.K. (1988). Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid Nematodes: A Handbook of Techniques, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin No. 331."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1827","DOI":"10.31285\/AGRO.30.1827","article-title":"Molecular characterization and first report of entomopathogenic nematodes from carob forests in Tumbes, Peru","volume":"30","author":"Huaytalla","year":"2026","journal-title":"Agrociencia Urug."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1163\/15685411-00003350","article-title":"Can rational sampling maximise isolation and fix distribution measure of entomopathogenic nematodes?","volume":"22","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nematology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1093\/ee\/20.2.700","article-title":"Selection for enhanced host-finding of scarab larvae (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in an entomopathogenic nematode","volume":"20","author":"Gaugler","year":"1991","journal-title":"Environ. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Nugent, M.J., and Burnell, A.M. (1994). The Cryopreservation of Heterorhabditis, COST 8 J 2 Workshop, European Commission. EUR 15681 EN Report."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Upadhyay, R.K. (2002). Genetic improvement of entomopathogenic nematodes for insect biocontrol. Advances in Microbial Control of Insect Pests, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publishers."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2417","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.041301","article-title":"Selection of entomopathogenic nematodes for enhanced responsiveness to a volatile root signal helps to control a major root pest","volume":"213","author":"Hiltpold","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Exper. Biol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2016.04.008","article-title":"Genomics of entomopathogenic nematodes and implications for pest control","volume":"32","author":"Lu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morris, R., Wilson, L., Sturrock, M., Warnock, N.D., Carrizo, D., Cox, D., Maule, A.G., and Dalzell, J.J. (2017). A neuropeptide modulates sensory perception in the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae. PLoS Pathog., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006185"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"197","article-title":"The isolation of mutants of Heterorhabditis megidis (Strain UK211) with increased desiccation tolerance","volume":"20","author":"Burnell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Fundam. Appl. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6273","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms7273","article-title":"Indole is an essential herbivore-induced volatile priming signal in maize","volume":"6","author":"Erb","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.13297","article-title":"Chemical cues linked to risk: Cues from below-ground natural enemies enhance plant defenses and influence herbivore behavior and performance","volume":"33","author":"Helms","year":"2019","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaur, A., Sirengo, D.K., Karki, P., Powers, T.O., and Brown, A.M.V. (2026). Harnessing entomopathogenic nematodes for sustainable pest management: Mechanisms, challenges, and innovations. Front. Plant Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2026.1755114"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7795","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8795","article-title":"Conserved nematode signalling molecules elicit plant defenses and pathogen resistance","volume":"6","author":"Manosalva","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, N., Li, K., Ma, H., Hu, L., Yang, Y., and Liu, L. (2024). Molecular characterization of odorant-binding protein genes associated with host-seeking behavior in Oides leucomelaena. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25179436"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2025.108363","article-title":"Entomopathogenic nematodes: Survival, virulence and immunity","volume":"212","author":"Glazer","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2024.108070","article-title":"Enhancing entomopathogenic nematode efficacy with pheromones: A field study targeting the pecan weevil","volume":"203","author":"Perier","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"1","article-title":"Intraspecific virulence of entomopathogenic nematodes against the pests Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)","volume":"53","author":"Galeano","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1007\/s10682-014-9706-y","article-title":"Genetic selection of the ambush foraging entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae for enhanced dispersal and its associated trade-offs","volume":"28","author":"Bal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Evol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2013.05.009","article-title":"Molecular characterisation of the recovery process in the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora","volume":"43","author":"Moshayov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"185","article-title":"A realistic appraisal of methods to enhance desiccation tolerance of entomopathogenic nematodes","volume":"44","author":"Perry","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4565(97)00005-3","article-title":"Polymorphism in heat shock protein gene (hsp70) in entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida)","volume":"22","author":"Hashmi","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Therm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2025.108389","article-title":"A century of advancement in entomopathogenic nematode formulation and application technology","volume":"212","author":"Ment","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1080\/0958315021000016207","article-title":"Enhanced trehalose accumulation and desiccation survival of entomopathogenic nematodes through cold preacclimation","volume":"12","author":"Grewal","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biocontrol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.H., Dillman, A.R., and Hallem, E.A. (2016). Temperature-dependent changes in the host-seeking behaviors of parasitic nematodes. BMC Biol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-016-0259-0"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lillis, P.E., Griffin, C.T., and Carolan, J.C. (2022). The effect of temperature conditioning (9 \u00b0C and 20 \u00b0C) on the proteome of entomopathogenic nematode infective juveniles. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0266164"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1163\/15685411-00002692","article-title":"Desiccation tolerance of dauers of entomopathogenic nematodes of the genus Steinernema","volume":"15","author":"Nimkingrat","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nematology"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2011.02.005","article-title":"Outcrossing and crossbreeding recovers deteriorated traits in laboratory cultured Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes","volume":"41","author":"Chaston","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1111\/1749-4877.12752","article-title":"Biotic and abiotic stresses on honeybee health","volume":"19","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Integr. Zool."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.2008.00319.x","article-title":"A survival-reproduction trade-off in entomopathogenic nematodes mediated by their bacterial symbionts","volume":"62","author":"Emelianoff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4842","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.200800719","article-title":"The pre-omics era: The early days of two-dimensional gels","volume":"8","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2025.108284","article-title":"Genome-wide analyses provide insights into genetic variation, phylo- and co-phylogenetic relationships, and biogeography of the entomopathogenic nematode genus Heterorhabditis","volume":"204","author":"Machado","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Phylogenetics Evol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, X., Adams, B.J., Ciche, T.A., Clifton, S., Gaugler, R., Kim, K.-S., Spieth, J., Sternberg, P.W., Wilson, R.K., and Grewal, P.S. (2013). A lover and a fighter: The genome sequence of an entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0069618"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"359","article-title":"Phenotypic and genetic analysis of a mutant of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora strain HP88","volume":"24","author":"Zioni","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"32","article-title":"Phenotypic and genetic characterization of two new mutants of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora","volume":"26","author":"Koltai","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/iyab170","article-title":"The entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema hermaphroditum is a self- fertilizing hermaphrodite and a genetically tractable system for the study of parasitic and mutualistic symbiosis","volume":"220","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1006\/jipa.1995.1103","article-title":"Genetic transformation of an entomopathogenic nematode by microinjection","volume":"66","author":"Hashmi","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-010X(19980615)281:3<164::AID-JEZ2>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"Thermal response of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora transformed with the Caenorhabditis elegans hsp70 encoding gene","volume":"281","author":"Hashmi","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Exper. Zool."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1006\/bcon.1997.0538","article-title":"Field release and environmental fate of a transgenic entomopathogenic nematode","volume":"9","author":"Gaugler","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biol. Cont."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Glazer, I., Richardson, P., Boemare, N., and Coudert, F. (1999). Transgenic nematodes carrying a cloned stress resistance gene from yeast. Survival of Entomopathogenic Nematodes, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, C., Ma, X., Gao, F., and Guo, Y. (2023). Off-target effects in CRISPR\/Cas9 gene editing. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1143157"},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Cao, M. (2023). CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing in Steinernema entomopathogenic nematodes. bioRxiv, 568619."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6349","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.13.6349","article-title":"Construction of an improved mycoinsecticide over-expressing a toxic protease","volume":"93","author":"Joshi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2008.05.004","article-title":"Increased pathogenicity against coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) by Metarhizium anisopliae expressing the scorpion toxin (AaIT) gene","volume":"99","author":"Posada","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2009.01.012","article-title":"Purification, biochemical and molecular analysis of a chymotrypsin protease with prophenoloxidase suppression activity from the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae","volume":"39","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pathol.1.110304.100151","article-title":"Proteases in parasitic diseases","volume":"1","author":"McKerrow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182099006563","article-title":"Desiccation stress of entomopathogenic nematodes induces the accumulation of a novel heat-stable protein","volume":"121","author":"Solomon","year":"2000","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1006\/bcon.1998.0672","article-title":"Steinernema glaseri surface coat protein suppresses the immune response of Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Sacarabaeidae) larvae","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biol. Control"},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"495","article-title":"CRISPR-PN2: A flexible and genome-aware platform for diverse CRISPR experiments in parasitic nematodes","volume":"71","year":"2021","journal-title":"BioTechniques"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Morris, R. (2020). Exploiting Entomopathogenic Nematode Neurobiology to Improve Bioinsecticide Formulations. [Ph.D. Thesis, Queen\u2019s University Belfast]."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciche, T.A., and Sternberg, P.W. (2007). Postembryonic RNAi in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora: A nematode insect parasite and host for insect pathogenic symbionts. BMC Dev. Biol., 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-213X-7-101"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10500","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-67097-0","article-title":"Characterization of the phenotypic and genotypic tolerance to abiotic stresses of natural populations of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora","volume":"10","author":"Levy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"100","article-title":"Novel strains of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and symbiotic bacteria for a better control of the invasive maize pest western corn rootworm, Diabrotica v. virgifera (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)","volume":"162","author":"Toepfer","year":"2023","journal-title":"IOBC-WPRS Bull."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Ehlers, R.-U. (2022, January 1\u20135). Heterorhabditis bacteriophora: An excellent model for genetic improvement of biocontrol traits. Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Nematology, Antibes Juan-les-Pins, France."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2025.113696","article-title":"Metabarcoding-based characterization of soil nematode communities to assess soil health in viticulture","volume":"176","author":"Pou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2020.107793","article-title":"Comparing high throughput sequencing and real time qPCR for characterizing entomopathogenic nematode biogeography","volume":"145","author":"Dritsoulas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soil Biol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocontrol.2013.05.009","article-title":"New citriculture system suppresses native and augmented entomopathogenic nematodes","volume":"66","author":"Pathak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Control"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsoil.2019.04.009","article-title":"Geospatial relationships between native entomopathogenic nematodes and Fusarium solani in a Florida citrus orchard","volume":"140","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Soil Ecol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s41938-024-00768-6","article-title":"Nematode spatial distribution in the service of biological pest control","volume":"34","year":"2024","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Biol. Pest Cont."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7348.2010.00433.x","article-title":"Long-term stability of entomopathogenic nematode spatial patterns in soil as measured by sentinel insects and real-time PCR assays","volume":"158","author":"Johnson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Appl. Biol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.07.187","article-title":"Entomopathogenic nematode food webs in an ancient, mining pollution gradient in Spain","volume":"572","author":"Escuer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31670","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-80913-1","article-title":"Genes involved in DMSO-mediated yield increase of entomopathogenic nematodes","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1186\/s40538-025-00862-3","article-title":"Mutualistic bacteria of entomopathogenic nematodes as an insecticidal agent for sustainable agriculture","volume":"12","author":"Liao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2025.107185","article-title":"Biocontrol potential and characterization of cell-free supernatants from Xenorhabdus nematophila: A novel approach to control Tetranychus urticae","volume":"193","author":"Priya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mustapha, T., Kwarau, N.L., Patil, R.B., Tang, H., Abdullahi, M.-A.I., Wu, S.-Y., and Hou, Y. (2026). Molecular dynamics insights into Cassia tora-derived phytochemicals as dual insecticidal and antifungal agents against tomato Tuta absoluta and Alternaria solani. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27031410"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2022.107781","article-title":"Organic mulching modulated native populations of entomopathogenic nematode in vineyard soils differently depending on its potential to control outgrowth of their natural enemies","volume":"192","author":"Pou","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.22268\/AJPP-001262","article-title":"Effect of mulching manures and use of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora on strawberry fruit yield, Temnorhynchus baal and Meloidogyne javanica under field conditions","volume":"42","author":"Duncan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arab J. Plant Prot."},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"Manduca, G., Casadei, A., Zeni, V., Benelli, G., Stefanini, C., and Romano, D. (2024, January 29\u201330). Insights into entomopathogenic nematode behavior by using AI techniques to advance sustainable pest control. Proceedings of the Ital-IA 2024 Thematic Workshops, Naples, Italy."},{"key":"ref_128","first-page":"7","article-title":"Pathogenicity of Steinernema scapterisci to selected invertebrates","volume":"23","author":"Nguyen","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_129","unstructured":"Mrales-Ramos, J., Rojas, G., and Shapiro-Ilan, D.I. (2023). Production of entomopathogenic nematodes. Mass Production of Beneficial Organisms: Invertebrates and Entmopathogens, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abd-Elgawad, M.M.M. (2026). Grasping molecular biology mechanisms to optimize plant resistance and advance microbiome role against phytonematodes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27041744"},{"key":"ref_131","first-page":"1","article-title":"Transformational technologies for more uptakes of entomopathogenic nematodes","volume":"35","year":"2025","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Biol. Pest Cont."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2019.10.003","article-title":"Crying out for help with root exudates: Adaptive mechanisms by which stressed plants assemble health-promoting soil microbiomes","volume":"49","author":"Rolfe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-phyto-082712-102340","article-title":"Induced systemic resistance by beneficial microbes","volume":"52","author":"Pieterse","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Phytopathol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.114417","article-title":"The Smart soil organism detector: An instrument and machine learning pipeline for soil species identification","volume":"221","author":"Filgueiras","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhat, C.G., Budhwar, R., Godwin, J., Dillman, A.R., Rao, U., and Somvanshi, V.S. (2022). RNA-Sequencing of Heterorhabditis nematodes to identify factors involved in symbiosis with Photorhabdus bacteria. BMC Genom., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-022-08952-4"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.2307\/3275805","article-title":"Zymograms of the parasitic nematodes, Neoaplectana glaseri and N. carpocapsae, grown axenically","volume":"49","author":"Sherman","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1163\/187529287X00155","article-title":"Use of starch gel electrophoresis in the taxonomy of the genus Heterorhabditis (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae)","volume":"33","author":"Akhurst","year":"1987","journal-title":"Nematologica"},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"246","article-title":"A comparative analysis of esterase of the insect-parasitic nematodes of the genus Neoaplectana","volume":"10","author":"Sha","year":"1985","journal-title":"Acta Zootax. Sin."},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"13","article-title":"Neoaplectana glaseri and N. anomali: Sibling species or parallelism?","volume":"11","author":"Poinar","year":"1988","journal-title":"Rev. De Nematol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Worsfold, P., Townshend, A., and Poole, C. (2005). Electrophoresis: Overview. Encyclopedia of Analytical Science, Elsevier. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B0-12-369397-7\/00714-7"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2005.10.003","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae IS-6 IJs under evaporative and osmotic stresses","volume":"145","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_142","first-page":"581","article-title":"Genetic diversity in wild and laboratory population of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora as determined by RAPD\u2013PCR analysis","volume":"20","author":"Shapiro","year":"1997","journal-title":"Fund. App. Nematol."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"45","article-title":"Development of a polymerase chain reaction-based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis technique to study nematode species biodiversity using the 18s rDNA gene","volume":"2","author":"Foucher","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Notes"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adhikari, B.N., Lin, C.Y., Bai, X., Ciche, T.A., Grewal, P.S., Dillman, A.R., Chaston, J.M., Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., Bilgrami, A.L., and Gaugler, R. (2009). Transcriptional profiling of trait deterioration in the insect pathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. BMC Genom., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-10-609"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2008.02369.x","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora","volume":"9","author":"Bai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Resour."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1186\/s41938-021-00425-2","article-title":"Isolation, identification, and study of the genetic diversity between three entomopathogenic nematodes belonging to Heterorhabditis sp. using ISSR technique","volume":"31","author":"Khashaba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Biol. Pest Cont."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1163\/15685411-bja10052","article-title":"Molecular identification, phylogeny and phylogeography of the entomopathogenic nematodes of the genus Heterorhabditis Poinar, 1976: A multigene approach","volume":"23","author":"Dhakal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nematology"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012015","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/1528\/1\/012015","article-title":"Molecular identification of entomopathogenic nematodes in several crop rhizospheres from Bogor","volume":"1528","author":"Christian","year":"2025","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/19\/8596\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T09:27:01Z","timestamp":1790760421000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/19\/8596"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":148,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27198596"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27198596","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]}}}