{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T12:57:43Z","timestamp":1790686663723,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Acrolein (ACR) and glyoxal (GO) are highly reactive carbonyls originating from endogenous metabolism, environmental pollution, and thermal food processing. This study compares the toxic mechanisms and redox effects of a 24 h exposure to ACR (30, 60, 90 \u00b5M) and GO (2, 5, 10 mM) in PBMCs. We assessed cell viability, lipid membrane fluidity, reactive oxygen\/nitrogen species (ROS\/RNS), free protein functional groups, reduced glutathione (GSH), non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity (NEAC), antioxidant enzyme activity (CAT, GPx), and protein expression levels (CAT, SOD1). Both aldehydes reduced viability in a concentration-dependent manner (ACR was over 30-fold more toxic than GO based on viability curves). These toxins increased membrane fluidity near the surface, while GO also altered the hydrophobic core. Both triggered a profound accumulation of ROS\/RNS. At specific dose thresholds (ACR \u2265 60 \u00b5M; GO \u2265 5 mM), both toxins depleted GSH and NEAC, decreased protein thiol\/amino groups, and suppressed CAT\/GPx catalytic activity and CAT\/SOD1 protein expression. In conclusion, ACR emerged as a markedly more potent inducer of oxidative stress and antioxidant failure than GO in PBMCs, disrupting both non-enzymatic (GSH, NEAC) and enzymatic (CAT, GPx, SOD1) defenses. These results support prioritizing ACR in exposure risk assessments and developing biomarkers of carbonyl-induced immune dysfunction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27198706","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T12:09:25Z","timestamp":1790683765000},"page":"8706","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative Effects of Acrolein and Glyoxal on Redox Homeostasis, Antioxidant Defense and Membrane Properties in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells: An In Vitro Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6875-1423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michal","family":"Kopera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, ul. Pomorska 141\/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Malgorzata","family":"Adamkiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, ul. Pomorska 141\/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1915-9834","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Bernasinska-Slomczewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, ul. Pomorska 141\/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5061-1596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Pieniazek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, ul. 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