{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T12:56:17Z","timestamp":1791204977276,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Nazarbayev University Collaborative Research Program","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/052bx8q98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/052bx8q98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Proteins found in human urine can be used as a source of information on kidney function and as possible biomarkers for diseases such as chronic kidney disease (CKD). Focusing on differentiating between high and low albumin concentrations in urine samples, this study examines the roles of various substrates in detecting albuminuria as a specific form of proteinuria using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Using gold nanorods (AuNRs) and gold spheroidal nanoparticles (AuNPs) on various substrates to optimize the identification of albuminuria, we studied urine samples from 77 and 124 patients with albumin concentrations above and below 0.3 g\/L. SERS spectra were analyzed using principal component analysis\u2014linear discriminant analysis (PCA-LDA), partial least squares with linear discriminant analysis (PLS-LDA), and support vector machine (PLS-SVM)\u2014to differentiate between high- and low-urinary-albumin groups. PLS-LDA was the best-performing method among the three methods. The largest of all tested nanoparticles, 200 nm diameter (D200 nm) AuNPs on gold substrates, performed best in distinguishing between high and low concentrations of albumin in urine, with a maximum average area under the curve (AUC) of 0.97, 100% sensitivity, 92% specificity, and 96% accuracy and a higher enhancement factor of 5.4 \u00d7 107 in comparison to the same parameters obtained with \u03bb650 nm and \u03bb750 nm AuNRs on gold, which demonstrated average AUC values of 0.86 and 0.77 and EFs of 11 and 3 \u00d7 106, respectively. These larger NPs create hot spots in nanogaps between nanoparticles, which may have better accessibility to protein molecules compared to hot spots created in gaps between smaller nanorods and nanoparticles. This study highlights the role of nanoparticle size and shape in determining optimal SERS substrate parameters, thereby yielding more accurate results in the detection of high concentrations of albumin in urine by direct SERS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27198833","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T12:31:31Z","timestamp":1791203491000},"page":"8833","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparison of SERS Substrates in Direct Analysis of Urine Samples for Detection of Albuminuria: Relatively Large Gold Nano-Spheroids Outperform Gold Nanorods on Gold Film"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Aigerim","family":"Boranova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences and Humanities (SSH), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0733-8768","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Almat","family":"Kabyl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences and Humanities (SSH), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Bagdat","family":"Tuleuov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences and Humanities (SSH), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Madiyar","family":"Kassymaly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences and Humanities (SSH), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0971-227X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhalaliddin","family":"Makhammajanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9844-8772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abduzhappar","family":"Gaipov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7060-1632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rostislav","family":"Bukasov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences and Humanities (SSH), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swensen, A., He, J., Fang, A., Ye, Y., Nicora, C., Shi, T., Liu, A., Sigdel, T., Sarwal, M., and Qian, W.-J. 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