{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T04:48:29Z","timestamp":1791953309843,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":196,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Mol. Sci.","IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic neurological disorders worldwide, affecting millions of individuals and imposing a substantial cognitive, psychological, social, and economic burden. Despite significant advances in epilepsy research, key questions remain unresolved regarding the mechanisms underlying drug resistance, cognitive impairment, depression, and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy, as well as the contribution of recurrent seizures in promoting neuronal and glial injury. Addressing these challenges requires reliable biomarkers capable of accurately reflecting disease activity and detecting ongoing brain damage. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on biofluid biomarkers of neuronal and glial damage in epilepsy and seizures and discuss their potential clinical relevance. Particular attention is given to biomarkers associated with major pathways involved in epileptogenesis, including neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, neurodegeneration, blood\u2013brain barrier disruption, altered gene expression, and synaptic remodeling. Emerging evidence suggests that circulating and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers may provide valuable insights into seizure-related brain injury and the molecular mechanisms underlying epilepsy. Although none of these markers has yet been adopted in routine clinical practice, they represent promising tools for improving diagnosis, prognostic assessment, patient stratification, and the development of more personalized therapeutic strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27198842","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T12:31:31Z","timestamp":1791203491000},"page":"8842","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biofluid Biomarkers of Neuronal and Glial Injury in Epilepsy and Seizures: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4955-1463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentin","family":"Moro\u0219anu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 T\u00e2rgu Mures, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Smaranda","family":"Maier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Department, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 T\u00e2rgu Mures, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iulian","family":"Roman-Filip","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 T\u00e2rgu Mures, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergiu","family":"Moro\u0219anu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology, Targu Mures Institute for Cardiovascular Diseases and Heart Transplantation, 540136 Targu Mures, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodica","family":"B\u0103la\u0219a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 T\u00e2rgu Mures, Romania"},{"name":"Neurology Department, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 T\u00e2rgu Mures, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1159\/000503831","article-title":"The Epidemiology of Epilepsy","volume":"54","author":"Beghi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.12550","article-title":"ILAE Official Report: A Practical Clinical Definition of Epilepsy","volume":"55","author":"Fisher","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1684\/epd.2021.1376","article-title":"Acute Symptomatic Seizures: An Educational, Evidence-Based Review","volume":"24","author":"Mauritz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epileptic Disord. Int. Epilepsy J. Videotape"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2026, August 03). Epilepsy. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/epilepsy."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"e13953","article-title":"The History of Epilepsy: From Ancient Mystery to Modern Misconception","volume":"13","author":"Kaculini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200002033420503","article-title":"Early Identification of Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"342","author":"Kwan","year":"2000","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2478\/amma-2023-0027","article-title":"Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) Therapy System in Pharmacoresistant Epilepsy: A Literature Review","volume":"69","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Marisiensis Ser. Medica"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, S., and Sinha, J.K. (2026). Etiology, Symptoms, and Treatment of Epilepsy: Advances and Perspectives. Brain Sci., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16010089"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18024","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2018.24","article-title":"Epilepsy","volume":"4","author":"Devinsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primer"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141ukawski, K., and Czuczwar, S.J. (2023). Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration in Animal Models of Seizures and Epilepsy. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12051049"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazhit, A., Akbay, B., Trofimov, A., Karapina, O., Duysenbi, S., and Tokay, T. (2026). Epileptogenesis and Epilepsy Treatment: Advances in Mechanistic Understanding, Therapeutic Approaches, and Future Perspectives. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27031175"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2025.5577","article-title":"Blood-brain Barrier Dysfunction in Epilepsy: Mechanisms, Therapeutic Strategies and Future Orientation (Review)","volume":"56","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1186\/s41983-024-00843-7","article-title":"Astrocyte Dysregulation as an Epileptogenic Factor: A Systematic Review","volume":"60","author":"Sumadewi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Neurol. Psychiatry Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2021.114786","article-title":"Role of Glutamate Excitotoxicity and Glutamate Transporter EAAT2 in Epilepsy: Opportunities for Novel Therapeutics Development","volume":"193","author":"Green","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2024-0173","article-title":"The Role of Glutamate Receptors and Transporters in Epilepsy: Evidence from Animal Studies","volume":"36","author":"Lemes","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1007\/s43440-020-00143-w","article-title":"Role of Oxidative Stress in Epileptogenesis and Potential Implications for Therapy","volume":"72","author":"Czuczwar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep. PR"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Xu, R., Huang, H., Yang, J., Yu, C., Zhang, H., and Xu, Z. (2025). Advances in Understanding the Role of Inflammatory Factors and Immune Cells in the Pathology of Epilepsy, Mediated by Neuroimmune Interactions within the Gut-Brain Axis. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2025.1650909"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jean, G., Carton, J., Haq, K., and Musto, A.E. (2023). The Role of Dendritic Spines in Epileptogenesis. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2023.1173694"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13404","article-title":"Involvement of microRNAs in Epileptogenesis","volume":"57","author":"Cattani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"143908","article-title":"Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Epileptogenesis of the Temporal Lobe","volume":"2011","author":"Weissberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.48083\/AKUI6936","article-title":"Classification of Molecular Biomarkers","volume":"1","author":"Shah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Int. D\u2019Urologie J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1007\/s12551-021-00849-y","article-title":"Human Disease Biomarker Panels through Systems Biology","volume":"13","author":"Smith","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biophys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370217750088","article-title":"Biomarker Definitions and Their Applications","volume":"243","author":"Califf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1111\/ane.13616","article-title":"Blood Biomarkers in Epilepsy","volume":"146","author":"Banote","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4048","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00492","article-title":"Elevated Blood-Based Brain Biomarker Levels in Patients with Epileptic Seizures: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Simani","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s12245-008-0024-4","article-title":"Seizure Visits in US Emergency Departments: Epidemiology and Potential Disparities in Care","volume":"1","author":"Pallin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-017-1745-2","article-title":"Early Postictal Serum Lactate Concentrations Are Superior to Serum Creatine Kinase Concentrations in Distinguishing Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures from Syncopes","volume":"13","author":"Matz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2009.04.016","article-title":"Serum Creatine Phosphokinase Is Helpful in Distinguishing Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures from Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures and Vasovagal Syncope","volume":"15","author":"Petramfar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav. EB"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e27329","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000027329","article-title":"Serum Prolactin Level and Lactate Dehydrogenase Activity in Patients with Epileptic and Nonepileptic Seizures: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"100","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2020.106508","article-title":"Prolactin Levels as a Criterion to Differentiate between Psychogenic Non-Epileptic Seizures and Epileptic Seizures: A Systematic Review","volume":"169","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rider, F., Turchinets, A., Druzhkova, T., Kustov, G., Guekht, A., and Gulyaeva, N. (2024). Dissimilar Changes in Serum Cortisol after Epileptic and Psychogenic Non-Epileptic Seizures: A Promising Biomarker in the Differential Diagnosis of Paroxysmal Events?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137387"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puppala, S., Pattnaik, S., Acharya, A., Sahoo, S., Choudhury, S.S., and Sirohi, T. (2025). Serum Ammonia as a Biomarker to Differentiate Between True Epileptic and Psychogenic Non-Epileptic Seizures: A Cross-Sectional Study. Ann. Neurosci., 09727531251320158.","DOI":"10.1177\/09727531251320158"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michetti, F., Clementi, M.E., Di Liddo, R., Valeriani, F., Ria, F., Rende, M., Di Sante, G., and Romano Spica, V. (2023). The S100B Protein: A Multifaceted Pathogenic Factor More Than a Biomarker. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24119605"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, K.-G., Mu, R.-Z., Liu, Y., Jiang, D., Jia, T.-T., and Huang, Y.-J. (2019). Increased Serum S100B Levels in Patients With Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Study. Front. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.00456"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0036-1586729","article-title":"Evaluation of Serum S-100B Protein Levels in Patients with Simple Febrile Convulsions","volume":"14","author":"Yetkin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.08.036","article-title":"Elevated Plasma S100B Concentration Is Associated with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy in Han Chinese: A Case-Control Study","volume":"484","author":"Lu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2012.03685.x","article-title":"In Vivo Imaging of Glia Activation Using 1H-Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy to Detect Putative Biomarkers of Tissue Epileptogenicity","volume":"53","author":"Filibian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2012.10.012","article-title":"Elevated Serum S-100B Levels in Children with Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"22","author":"Calik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Seizure\u2014Eur. J. Epilepsy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giovannini, G., and Meletti, S. (2023). Fluid Biomarkers of Neuro-Glial Injury in Human Status Epilepticus: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241512519"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1002\/epi.70049","article-title":"S100 Calcium-Binding Protein Beta (S100B) in Serum as a Biomarker for Epilepsy after Traumatic Brain Injury: A Register-Based Cohort Study in Danish Adults","volume":"67","author":"Lolk","year":"2026","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"95","article-title":"The Effects of Minocycline on the Hippocampus in Lithium-Pilocarpine Induced Status Epilepticus in Rat: Relations with Microglial\/Astrocytic Activation and Serum S100B Level","volume":"29","author":"Bulduk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Turk. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-328X(02)00406-0","article-title":"Enhanced Epileptogenesis in S100B Knockout Mice","volume":"106","author":"Dyck","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30044-3","article-title":"Epileptic Activity in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Causes and Clinical Relevance","volume":"16","author":"Vossel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2009.04.006","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid Tau as a Marker of Neuronal Damage after Epileptic Seizure","volume":"18","author":"Palmio","year":"2009","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2015.04.030","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid Tau Proteins in Status Epilepticus","volume":"49","author":"Monti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav. EB"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2398","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16375","article-title":"Tau Deposition in Young Adults with Drug-Resistant Focal Epilepsy","volume":"60","author":"Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2019.06.033","article-title":"Increased CSF Tau Is Associated with a Higher Risk of Seizures in Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"98","author":"Lopes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav. EB"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2441","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww187","article-title":"Hyperphosphorylated Tau in Patients with Refractory Epilepsy Correlates with Cognitive Decline: A Study of Temporal Lobe Resections","volume":"139","author":"Tai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2174","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-022-03190-x","article-title":"Hyperphosphorylated Tau in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: A Neuropathological and Cognitive Study","volume":"60","author":"Toscano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Witt, J.-A., Andernach, J., Becker, A., and Helmstaedter, C. (2025). Hyperphosphorylated Tau and Cognition in Epilepsy. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14020514"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwang, K., Vaknalli, R.N., Addo-Osafo, K., Vicente, M., and Vossel, K. (2022). Tauopathy and Epilepsy Comorbidities and Underlying Mechanisms. Front. Aging Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.903973"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, M., Kenny, A., de Leo, G., Beamer, E.H., and Engel, T. (2019). Tau Phosphorylation in a Mouse Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. Front. Aging Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2019.00308"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3664","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.18142","article-title":"Amyloid Deposition in Adults with Drug-Resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"65","author":"Fonseca","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paudel, Y.N., Angelopoulou, E., Piperi, C., Othman, I., and Shaikh, M.F. (2020). Revisiting the Impact of Neurodegenerative Proteins in Epilepsy: Focus on Alpha-Synuclein, Beta-Amyloid, and Tau. Biology, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology9060122"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cretin, B., Bousiges, O., Hautecloque, G., Philippi, N., Blanc, F., Dibitonto, L., Martin-Hunyadi, C., and Sellal, F. (2021). CSF in Epileptic Prodromal Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: No Diagnostic Contribution but a Pathophysiological One. Front. Neurol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.623777"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2014.1977","article-title":"Expression of \u03b2-Amyloid Precursor Protein in Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"9","author":"Sima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-021-00505-9","article-title":"Amyloid-\u03b2: A Potential Link between Epilepsy and Cognitive Decline","volume":"17","author":"Romoli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.12336","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers of \u03b2-Amyloid Metabolism and Neuronal Damage in Epileptic Seizures","volume":"21","author":"Shahim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2018.09.006","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Late-Onset Epilepsy of Unknown Origin: Two Faces of Beta Amyloid Pathology","volume":"73","author":"Costa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butera, A., D\u2019Antoni, S., Nicotera, A.G., Catania, M.V., Consoli, C., Ceraolo, G., Spoto, G., Albertini, M.L., Di Rosa, G., and Elia, M. (2026). Neurodegeneration Biomarkers in Epilepsy: A Critical Review of Current Findings. Life, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/life16020296"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2012.08.001","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid Ubiquitin C-Terminal Hydrolase as a Novel Marker of Neuronal Damage after Epileptic Seizure","volume":"103","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1590\/0004-282x20200040","article-title":"Evaluation of Ubiquitin C-Terminal Hydrolase-L1 Enzyme Levels in Patients with Epilepsy","volume":"78","author":"Yasak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arq. Neuropsiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mondello, S., Palmio, J., Streeter, J., Hayes, R.L., Peltola, J., and Jeromin, A. (2012). Ubiquitin Carboxy-Terminal Hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1) Is Increased in Cerebrospinal Fluid and Plasma of Patients after Epileptic Seizure. BMC Neurol., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-12-85"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-017-2260-6","article-title":"Proteomic Analysis After Status Epilepticus Identifies UCHL1 as Protective Against Hippocampal Injury","volume":"42","author":"Reynolds","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2018.06.154","article-title":"UCH-L1 Inhibition Aggravates Mossy Fiber Sprouting in the Pentylenetetrazole Kindling Model","volume":"503","author":"Wen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1007\/s43440-020-00208-w","article-title":"Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines, but Not Brain- and Extracellular Matrix-Derived Proteins, Are Increased in the Plasma Following Electrically Induced Kindling of Seizures","volume":"73","author":"Chmielewska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep. PR"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.13130","article-title":"The Role of Ubiquitin C-Terminal Hydrolase (UCH-L1) and Protein S100B in Differentiating Patients with Epileptic and Psychogenic Non-Epileptic Seizures\u2014Pilot Study","volume":"10","author":"Ganoci","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-020-04920-z","article-title":"Correction to: Circulating Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein and Ubiquitin Carboxy-Terminal Hydrolase-L1 as Markers of Neuronal Damage in Children with Epileptic Seizures","volume":"37","author":"Elhady","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child\u2019s Nerv. Syst."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2018.09.028","article-title":"The Diagnostic Value of Serum UCHL-1 and S100-B Levels in Differentiate Epileptic Seizures from Psychogenic Attacks","volume":"1704","author":"Asadollahi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10198","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-024-04204-6","article-title":"A Mutual Nexus Between Epilepsy and \u03b1-Synuclein: A Puzzle Pathway","volume":"61","author":"Ali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e350","DOI":"10.1038\/cddis.2012.94","article-title":"Alpha-Synuclein: From Secretion to Dysfunction and Death","volume":"3","author":"Marques","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2015.02.007","article-title":"Alpha-Synuclein Is a Potential Biomarker in the Serum and CSF of Patients with Intractable Epilepsy","volume":"27","author":"Rong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1139\/cjpp-2018-0266","article-title":"Effects of Metformin on Apoptosis and \u03b1-Synuclein in a Rat Model of Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Epilepsy","volume":"97","author":"Hussein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70034","DOI":"10.1111\/nan.70034","article-title":"Increased Incidence of Epilepsy in a Brain Bank Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Cohort and Its Association with TDP-43 Pathology","volume":"51","author":"Rocca","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1080\/00207454.2024.2332958","article-title":"Exploring the Correlation between Serum \u03b1-Synuclein and Abnormal Electroencephalography Patterns in Children with Epilepsy, as Well as Electroencephalographic Discharge Index","volume":"135","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, J., Kim, S.Y., Kim, H., Lim, B.C., Hwang, H., Chae, J.H., Kim, K.J., Oh, S., Kim, E.Y., and Shin, J.-S. (2020). Serum \u03b1-Synuclein and IL-1\u03b2 Are Increased and Correlated with Measures of Disease Severity in Children with Epilepsy: Potential Prognostic Biomarkers?. BMC Neurol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-020-01662-y"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salem, A.M.S., Morgan, D.S., Elgendy, M.O., Abdelrahim, M.E.A., Mohamed Mostafa, N.M., Saleh, A., Abdel-Aziz, M.M., and Ramadan, A.K. (2025). Serum \u03b1-Synuclein in Pediatric Refractory Epilepsy: Correlation with Diagnosis and Clinical Severity. Medicina, 61.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina61050818"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"240","article-title":"Curcumin Offsets PTZ-Induced Epilepsy: Involving Inhibition of Apoptosis, Wnt\/\u03b2-Catenin, and Autophagy Pathways","volume":"7","author":"Hamdy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.2010.00414.x","article-title":"Proteomic Profiling of the Epileptic Dentate Gyrus","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gliwi\u0144ska, A., Czubili\u0144ska-\u0141ada, J., Wi\u0119ckiewicz, G., \u015awi\u0119tochowska, E., Bade\u0144ski, A., Dworak, M., and Szczepa\u0144ska, M. (2023). The Role of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in Diagnosis and Treatment of Epilepsy, Depression, Schizophrenia, Anorexia Nervosa and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease as Highly Drug-Resistant Diseases: A Narrative Review. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13020163"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.npep.2018.09.005","article-title":"Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Epilepsy: A Systematic Review","volume":"72","author":"Iughetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropeptides"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2021.106612","article-title":"Kinetics of Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Concentration Levels in Epileptic Patients after Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures","volume":"173","author":"Poniatowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2021.106794","article-title":"Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Patients with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"178","author":"Nowroozi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2021.106707","article-title":"Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Blood Serum and Lacrimal Fluid of Patients with Focal Epilepsy","volume":"176","author":"Shpak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2023.107200","article-title":"BDNF as Potential Biomarker of Epilepsy Severity and Psychiatric Comorbidity: Pitfalls in the Clinical Population","volume":"195","author":"McGonigal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.12232","article-title":"Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Levels in Epilepsy","volume":"21","author":"Hong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaygannejad, A., Rafiei, N., Vaheb, S., Yazdan Panah, M., Shaygannejad, V., and Mirmosayyeb, O. (2024). The Role of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein as a Biomarker in Multiple Sclerosis and Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicina, 60.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina60071050"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, K.Y., Shin, K.Y., and Chang, K.-A. (2023). GFAP as a Potential Biomarker for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12091309"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-024-01523-z","article-title":"Differences in Blood and Cerebrospinal Fluid Between Parkinson\u2019s Disease and Related Diseases","volume":"45","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7246373","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/7246373","article-title":"Serum Markers of Neuronal Damage and Astrocyte Activity in Patients with Chronic Epilepsy: Elevated Levels of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein","volume":"2023","author":"Mochol","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2018.07.010","article-title":"Serum GFAP Level: A Novel Adjunctive Diagnostic Test in Differentiate Epileptic Seizures from Psychogenic Attacks","volume":"61","author":"Simani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2690","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17713","article-title":"Neurofilament Light, Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein, and Tau in a Regional Epilepsy Cohort: High Plasma Levels Are Rare but Related to Seizures","volume":"64","author":"Akel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M., Yu, J., Xiao, X., Zhang, B., and Tang, J. (2022). Changes of Biochemical Biomarkers in the Serum of Children with Convulsion Status Epilepticus: A Prospective Study. BMC Neurol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-022-02686-2"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sitovskaya, D., Zabrodskaya, Y., Parshakov, P., Sokolova, T., Kudlay, D., Starshinova, A., and Samochernykh, K. (2023). Expression of Cytoskeletal Proteins (GFAP, Vimentin), Proapoptotic Protein (Caspase-3) and Protective Protein (S100) in the Epileptic Focus in Adults and Children with Drug-Resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Associated with Focal Cortical Dysplasia. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241914490"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1177\/08830738241273339","article-title":"Evaluation of GFAP, S100B, and UCHL-1 Levels in Children with Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"39","author":"Aksoy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goisis, R.C., Chiavegato, A., Gomez-Gonzalo, M., Marcon, I., Requie, L.M., Scholze, P., Carmignoto, G., and Losi, G. (2022). GABA Tonic Currents and Glial Cells Are Altered during Epileptogenesis in a Mouse Model of Dravet Syndrome. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 16, Correction in Front. Cell. Neurosci. 2022, 16, 1066985.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2022.919493"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12564","article-title":"Astrocyte Reactivity in a Mouse Model of SCN8A Epileptic Encephalopathy","volume":"7","author":"Thompson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.10527","article-title":"FDG-PET and NeuN-GFAP Immunohistochemistry of Hippocampus at Different Phases of the Pilocarpine Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rafiei, P., Mian, H.S., Iyer, S.H., Draves, S.B., Matthews, S.A., Rendon, D.E., Neesen, E.J., Dunlay, M., Revis, M., and Glisan, A.L. (2025). In Preclinical Epilepsy, GLUT1 and GFAP Dysregulation in Cells Surrounding the Third Ventricle, Including Tanycytes, Is Differentially Restored with Ketogenic Diet Treatment. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17111824"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazumder, A.G., Karedia, S., Adhyapak, N., Schirmer, C., Bass, J.S., Kamen, J.L., Jankovic, M.J., Miao, Q., Gallitano, A.L., and Saltzman, A.B. (2026). EGR3 Deletion Attenuates Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathy in Kcna1-Null Mice. Brain J. Neurol., awag319.","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awag319"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nass, R.D., Akg\u00fcn, K., Dague, K.O., Elger, C.E., Reichmann, H., Ziemssen, T., and Surges, R. (2021). CSF and Serum Biomarkers of Cerebral Damage in Autoimmune Epilepsy. Front. Neurol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.647428"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1007\/s13760-020-01361-y","article-title":"Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)-Antibody in Children with Focal Seizures of Undetermined Cause","volume":"121","author":"Tzartos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Belg."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schulz, P., L\u00fctt, A., St\u00f6cker, W., Teegen, B., Holtkamp, M., and Pr\u00fcss, H. (2023). High Frequency of Cerebrospinal Fluid Autoantibodies in Patients with Seizures or Epilepsies of Unknown Etiology. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1211812"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2021.08.012","article-title":"Brain Injury Markers in New-Onset Seizures in Adults: A Pilot Study","volume":"92","author":"Eriksson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2990.2008.00996.x","article-title":"Expression Patterns of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)-Delta in Epilepsy-Associated Lesional Pathologies","volume":"35","author":"Martinian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2010.03.014","article-title":"Immunohistochemical Characterization of the Out-of Frame Splice Variants GFAP Delta164\/Deltaexon 6 in Focal Lesions Associated with Chronic Epilepsy","volume":"90","author":"Boer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2019.03.018","article-title":"The Role of UCH-L1, MMP-9, and GFAP as Peripheral Markers of Different Susceptibility to Seizure Development in a Preclinical Model of Epilepsy","volume":"332","author":"Chmielewska","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0265-2","article-title":"Neurofilament Light Chain\u2014New Potential for Prediction and Prognosis","volume":"15","author":"Fyfe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1308","article-title":"Neurofilament Light Chain as a Biomarker for Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"20","author":"Kouchaki","year":"2021","journal-title":"EXCLI J."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17132","article-title":"Serum Neurofilament Light as Biomarker of Seizure-Related Neuronal Injury in Status Epilepticus","volume":"63","author":"Giovannini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-022-11547-4","article-title":"Neurofilament Light (NfL) as Biomarker in Serum and CSF in Status Epilepticus","volume":"270","author":"Margraf","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-026-13780-7","article-title":"Neurofilament Light-Chain (Nf-L) as a Biomarker in Seizures and Status Epilepticus of Varying Duration","volume":"273","author":"Schlabitz","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2751","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.18065","article-title":"Elevated Plasma Neurofilament Light and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein in Epilepsy versus Nonepileptic Seizures and Nonepileptic Disorders","volume":"65","author":"Dobson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1489","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000200021","article-title":"Neurofilament Light Chain Levels in Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis and Primary Psychiatric Psychosis","volume":"98","author":"Guasp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2204","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000207221","article-title":"Predictive Value of Serum Neurofilament Light Chain Levels in Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis","volume":"100","author":"Brenner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2025.110321","article-title":"Neurofilament Light Chain and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein as Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers in Epileptic Seizures and Epilepsy: A Systematic Review","volume":"165","author":"Thaele","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1002\/epd2.20024","article-title":"Serum Neurofilament Light Chain in Patients with Epilepsy and Cognitive Impairment","volume":"25","author":"Ueda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epileptic Disord. Int. Epilepsy J. Videotape"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shinomoto, M., Kasai, T., Tatebe, H., Kondo, M., Ohmichi, T., Morimoto, M., Chiyonobu, T., Terada, N., Allsop, D., and Yokota, I. (2019). Plasma Neurofilament Light Chain: A Potential Prognostic Biomarker of Dementia in Adult Down Syndrome Patients. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0211575"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2023.05.003","article-title":"Serum Neurofilament Light Chain (NfL) Levels in Children with and without Neurologic Diseases","volume":"45","author":"Geis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. EJPN Off. J. Eur. Paediatr. Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2024.08.006","article-title":"Neurofilament Light (NfL) Concentrations in Patients with Epilepsy with Recurrent Isolated Seizures: Insights from a Clinical Cohort Study","volume":"121","author":"Dargvainiene","year":"2024","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babkina, A.S., Lyubomudrov, M.A., Golubev, M.A., Pisarev, M.V., and Golubev, A.M. (2024). Neuron-Specific Enolase\u2014What Are We Measuring?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25095040"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sierakowska, A., Niewiadomska, E., \u0141abuda, S., Bieniasiewicz, A., Roszak, M., and \u0141abuz-Roszak, B. (2025). Neuron-Specific Enolase as a Biomarker for Selected Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders\u2014A Systematic Review of the Literature. Medicina, 61.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina61101831"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.14715\/cmb\/2022.68.10.21","article-title":"Development and Study of S100 Calcium-Binding Protein B and Neuron-Specific Enolase-Based Predictive Model for Epilepsy Secondary to Cerebral Infarction","volume":"68","author":"Wen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu, R.-Z., Liu, S., Liang, K.-G., Jiang, D., and Huang, Y.-J. (2020). A Meta-Analysis of Neuron-Specific Enolase Levels in Cerebrospinal Fluid and Serum in Children with Epilepsy. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2020.00024"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.45.6.1134","article-title":"Serum Neuron-Specific Enolase in Human Status Epilepticus","volume":"45","author":"DeGiorgio","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.50.5.1388","article-title":"Status Epilepticus Increases CSF Levels of Neuron-Specific Enolase and Alters the Blood-Brain Barrier","volume":"50","author":"Correale","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_127","first-page":"520","article-title":"Comparison of the Therapeutic Effects of Sodium Valproate and Levetiracetam on Pediatric Epilepsy and the Effects of Nerve Growth Factor and \u03b3-Aminobutyric Acid","volume":"50","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Iran. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2017.10.003","article-title":"Effect of Carbamazepine and Oxcarbazepine on Serum Neuron-Specific Enolase in Focal Seizures: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"138","author":"Maiti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2018.1465410","article-title":"Oxidative Stress in Epilepsy","volume":"18","author":"Geronzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olowe, R., Sandouka, S., Saadi, A., and Shekh-Ahmad, T. (2020). Approaches for Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress Quantification in Epilepsy. Antioxidants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox9100990"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1080\/14756366.2020.1748026","article-title":"1,2,4-Triazole-Based Anticonvulsant Agents with Additional ROS Scavenging Activity Are Effective in a Model of Pharmacoresistant Epilepsy","volume":"35","author":"Czarnomysy","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Enzym. Inhib. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2013.08.020","article-title":"Oxidative Stress Markers in the Neocortex of Drug-Resistant Epilepsy Patients Submitted to Epilepsy Surgery","volume":"107","author":"Marmol","year":"2013","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.17116\/jnevro202012007117","article-title":"Oxidative stress in focal symptomatic and cryptogenic epilepsy in young patients","volume":"120","author":"Fedin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Zhurnal Nevrol. I Psikhiatrii Im. SS Korsakova"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6688","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-57224-6","article-title":"Determination of Oxidative Stress Level and Some Antioxidant Activities in Refractory Epilepsy Patients","volume":"14","author":"Yilgor","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"763","article-title":"Antioxidative-Oxidative Balance in Epilepsy Patients on Antiepileptic Therapy: A Prospective Case-Control Study","volume":"37","author":"Aytac","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci. Off. J. Ital. Neurol. Soc. Ital. Soc. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-023-03009-z","article-title":"The microRNA-211-5p\/P2RX7\/ERK\/GPX4 Axis Regulates Epilepsy-Associated Neuronal Ferroptosis and Oxidative Stress","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"6279","article-title":"Research Progress on Oxidative Stress Regulating Different Types of Neuronal Death Caused by Epileptic Seizures","volume":"43","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci. Off. J. Ital. Neurol. Soc. Ital. Soc. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizwana, N., Agarwal, V., and Nune, M. (2022). Antioxidant for Neurological Diseases and Neurotrauma and Bioengineering Approaches. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11010072"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamieniak, M., Ko\u015bmider, K., Miziak, B., and Czuczwar, S.J. (2024). The Oxidative Stress in Epilepsy-Focus on Melatonin. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252312943"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2024.103262","article-title":"ABCG2 Shields against Epilepsy, Relieves Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis via Inhibiting the ISGylation of STAT1 and mTOR","volume":"75","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3109\/00207450109149758","article-title":"Endogenous Melatonin and Epileptogenesis: Facts and Hypothesis","volume":"107","author":"Stewart","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2013.11.017","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Agomelatine in Epilepsy and Epileptic Complications","volume":"82","author":"Vimala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parsons, A.L.M., Bucknor, E.M.V., Castroflorio, E., Soares, T.R., Oliver, P.L., and Rial, D. (2022). The Interconnected Mechanisms of Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation in Epilepsy. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11010157"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madireddy, S., and Madireddy, S. (2023). Therapeutic Strategies to Ameliorate Neuronal Damage in Epilepsy by Regulating Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Neuroinflammation. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13050784"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-022-01999-8","article-title":"Acetyl-L-Carnitine Exerts Neuroprotective and Anticonvulsant Effect in Kainate Murine Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"72","author":"Ramazi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci. MN"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2017.07.059","article-title":"Neuroprotective Effects of Acetyl-l-Carnitine on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Neuroinflammation in Mice: Involvement of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor","volume":"658","author":"Kazak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16450","article-title":"Repurposed Molecules for Antiepileptogenesis: Missing an Opportunity to Prevent Epilepsy?","volume":"61","author":"Klein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5910","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0682-09.2009","article-title":"Cystatin B Deficiency Sensitizes Neurons to Oxidative Stress in Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsy, EPM1","volume":"29","author":"Lehtinen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2019.02.028","article-title":"Baicalein Improves Cognitive Deficits and Hippocampus Impairments in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Rats","volume":"1714","author":"Qian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alqarni, F., Eweis, H.S., Ali, A., Alrafiah, A., Alsieni, M., Karim, S., and Alkathyri, M.A. (2022). The Effect of Coenzyme Q10 on Liver Injury Induced by Valproic Acid and Its Antiepileptic Activity in Rats. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10010168"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-021-02161-8","article-title":"Coenzyme Q10 a Mitochondrial Restorer for Various Brain Disorders","volume":"394","author":"Pradhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Naunyn. Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, X., Wang, M., Hu, S., Feng, Y., Shao, Y., Xie, Y., Wu, M., Chen, Y., and Shi, X. (2019). The Neuroprotective Effect of Astaxanthin on Pilocarpine-Induced Status Epilepticus in Rats. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2019.00123"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanz, P., Rubio, T., and Garcia-Gimeno, M.A. (2024). Neuroinflammation and Epilepsy: From Pathophysiology to Therapies Based on Repurposing Drugs. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25084161"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.5603\/pjnns.102426","article-title":"Role of Neuroinflammation Factors as Potential Biomarkers of Epilepsy: A Narrative Review","volume":"59","author":"Zawadzka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Pol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Q.-P., and Mao, D.-A. (2016). Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor SAHA Attenuates Post-Seizure Hippocampal Microglia TLR4\/MYD88 Signaling and Inhibits TLR4 Gene Expression via Histone Acetylation. BMC Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-016-0264-9"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-018-1192-7","article-title":"The Role of Inflammation in the Development of Epilepsy","volume":"15","author":"Rana","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1535-7511.2007.00165.x","article-title":"New Roles for Interleukin-1 Beta in the Mechanisms of Epilepsy","volume":"7","author":"Vezzani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Epilepsy Curr."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21931","DOI":"10.1038\/srep21931","article-title":"Transient Increase of Interleukin-1\u03b2 after Prolonged Febrile Seizures Promotes Adult Epileptogenesis through Long-Lasting Upregulating Endocannabinoid Signaling","volume":"6","author":"Feng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.12628","article-title":"IL-1\u03b2 Associations with Posttraumatic Epilepsy Development: A Genetics and Biomarker Cohort Study","volume":"55","author":"Diamond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-023-01170-2","article-title":"Interleukins in Epilepsy: Friend or Foe","volume":"40","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2021.106738","article-title":"Interleukin-33 and Oxidative Stress in Epilepsy Patients","volume":"176","author":"Ethemoglu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruol, D.L. (2016). Impact of Increased Astrocyte Expression of IL-6, CCL2 or CXCL10 in Transgenic Mice on Hippocampal Synaptic Function. Brain Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci6020019"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100297","DOI":"10.5498\/wjp.v15.i1.100297","article-title":"Interleukin-6 in Epilepsy and Its Neuropsychiatric Comorbidities: How to Bridge the Gap","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"World J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-1211(00)00140-6","article-title":"Interleukin-6 and Interleukin-1 Receptor Antagonist in Cerebrospinal Fluid from Patients with Recent Tonic-Clonic Seizures","volume":"41","author":"Peltola","year":"2000","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.21601\/ortadogutipdergisi.651791","article-title":"The Relationship between Interleukin-6 and Epileptic Seizure","volume":"12","author":"Ezer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ortado\u011fu T\u0131p Derg."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2013.03.004","article-title":"Interleukin-6, Interleukin-1 Beta and Interleukin-1 Receptor Antagonist Levels in Epileptic Seizures","volume":"22","author":"Uludag","year":"2013","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.02.007","article-title":"Inflammatory Mediators in Human Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"63","author":"Braun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2011.03.004","article-title":"The Serum Level of Interleukin-6 in Patients with Intellectual Disability and Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"95","author":"Liimatainen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.62641\/aep.v53i4.1790","article-title":"A Correlation between Inflammatory Factors and Epileptic Seizures: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"53","author":"Cao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Actas Esp. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbari, I., Missaoui, S., Kholaiq, H., Benbouziane, N., Aadam, Z., Abderrahmane, E., El Bakkouri, J., Bousfiha, A.A., and Gueddari, W. (2026). Levels of IL-1\u03b2 and IL-1 Receptor Antagonist (IL-1Ra) in Moroccan Children Admitted to the Pediatric Emergency Department for Febrile Seizures. BMC Pediatr., 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-026-06769-8"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-015-0742-3","article-title":"Interictal Cytokine Levels Were Correlated to Seizure Severity of Epileptic Patients: A Retrospective Study on 1218 Epileptic Patients","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorigados Pedre, L., Morales Chac\u00f3n, L.M., Pav\u00f3n Fuentes, N., Robinson Agramonte, M.D.L.A., Serrano S\u00e1nchez, T., Cruz-Xenes, R.M., Hung, M.-L.D., Estupi\u00f1\u00e1n D\u00edaz, B., B\u00e1ez Mart\u00edn, M.M., and Orozco-Su\u00e1rez, S. (2018). Follow-Up of Peripheral IL-1\u03b2 and IL-6 and Relation with Apoptotic Death in Drug-Resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Patients Submitted to Surgery. Behav. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/bs8020021"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2024.109786","article-title":"Interictal Interleukin-6 and Tumor Necrosis Factor \u03b1 Levels Are Associated with Seizure Recurrence in Adults with Epilepsy","volume":"155","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav. EB"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.20480","article-title":"Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha Inhibits Seizures in Mice via P75 Receptors","volume":"57","author":"Balosso","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ENEURO.0105-17.2017","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0105-17.2017","article-title":"Hippocampal TNF\u03b1 Signaling Contributes to Seizure Generation in an Infection-Induced Mouse Model of Limbic Epilepsy","volume":"4","author":"Patel","year":"2017","journal-title":"eNeuro"},{"key":"ref_176","first-page":"123","article-title":"TNF-\u03b1: A Serological Marker for Evaluating the Severity of Hippocampal Sclerosis in Medial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy?","volume":"123","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci. Off. J. Neurosurg. Soc. Australas."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00301","article-title":"Tumor Necrosis Factor-\u03b1, the Pathological Key to Post-Traumatic Epilepsy: A Comprehensive Systematic Review","volume":"11","author":"Arulsamy","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2017.10.012","article-title":"Status Epilepticus Triggers Long-Lasting Activation of Complement C1q-C3 Signaling in the Hippocampus That Correlates with Seizure Frequency in Experimental Epilepsy","volume":"109","author":"Schartz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.23955","article-title":"The Complement C3-C3aR Pathway Mediates Microglia-Astrocyte Interaction Following Status Epilepticus","volume":"69","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-021-00750-4","article-title":"Complement C3 Aggravates Post-Epileptic Neuronal Injury Via Activation of TRPV1","volume":"37","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2015.02.004","article-title":"A Novel Anticonvulsant Mechanism via Inhibition of Complement Receptor C5ar1 in Murine Epilepsy Models","volume":"76","author":"Benson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2018.05.016","article-title":"Complement System Biomarkers in Epilepsy","volume":"60","author":"Kopczynska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5096","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-88654-5","article-title":"Drug-Resistant Epilepsy Associated with Peripheral Complement Decreases and Sex-Specific Cytokine Imbalances: A Pilot Study","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s41983-024-00828-6","article-title":"Assessment of Serum Complement Level in a Sample of Patients of Idiopathic Childhood Epilepsy","volume":"60","author":"Adel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Neurol. Psychiatry Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7369020","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7369020","article-title":"Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 in Epilepsy: The Role of Neuroinflammation in Seizure Development","volume":"2016","author":"Bronisz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.200708213","article-title":"Important Role of Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 in Epileptogenesis","volume":"180","author":"Wilczynski","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2010.03.003","article-title":"Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Activity Increased by Two Different Types of Epileptic Seizures That Do Not Induce Neuronal Death: A Possible Role in Homeostatic Synaptic Plasticity","volume":"56","author":"Nyilas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2024.110163","article-title":"Central Expression and Peripheral Levels of MMP-9 and TIMP-1 in Patients with Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"162","author":"Toledo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav. EB"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9294","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-018-1061-5","article-title":"Elevation of MMP-9 Levels Promotes Epileptogenesis After Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"55","author":"Pijet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2012.09.018","article-title":"Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in Human Intractable Epilepsy Caused by Focal Cortical Dysplasia","volume":"104","author":"Konopka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2016.11.006","article-title":"Serum Metalloproteinase 9 Levels Increase after Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures","volume":"129","author":"Cudna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Lin, Z., Yao, C., Liu, J., Chen, J., and Diao, L. (2024). Meta-Analysis of MMP-9 Levels in the Serum of Patients with Epilepsy. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1296876"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106978","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2025.106978","article-title":"Targeting MMP-9 Activation after Early-Life Seizures Reduces Seizure Susceptibility and Memory Deficits in a Larval Zebrafish Model","volume":"212","author":"Stegmuller","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201545950","article-title":"Pentraxin-3 Is Upregulated in the Central Nervous System during MS and EAE, but Does Not Modulate Experimental Neurological Disease","volume":"46","author":"Ummenthum","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7946252","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/7946252","article-title":"Advances Regarding Neuroinflammation Biomarkers with Noninvasive Techniques in Epilepsy","volume":"2021","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(01)00177-4","article-title":"Dynamic Induction of the Long Pentraxin PTX3 in the CNS after Limbic Seizures: Evidence for a Protective Role in Seizure-Induced Neurodegeneration","volume":"105","author":"Ravizza","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuroscience"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/19\/8842\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T04:16:26Z","timestamp":1791951386000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/27\/19\/8842"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"references-count":196,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms27198842"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27198842","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]}}}