{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:49:59Z","timestamp":1787028599339,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,15]],"date-time":"2021-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Insects"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Arthropod-borne viruses belonging to the flavivirus genus possess an enormous relevance in public health. Neotropical non-human primates (NPs) have been proposed to be susceptible to flavivirus infections due to their arboreal and diurnal habits, their genetic similarity to humans, and their relative closeness to humans. However, the only known flavivirus in the American continent maintained by sylvatic cycles involving NPs is yellow fever virus (YFV), and NPs\u2019 role as potential hosts of other flaviviruses is still unknown. Here, we examined flavivirus exposure in 86 serum samples including 83.7% samples from free-range and 16.3% from captive NPs living in flavivirus-endemic regions of Costa Rica. Serum samples were opportunistically collected throughout Costa Rica in 2000\u20132015. We used a highly specific micro-plaque reduction neutralization test (micro-PRNT) to determine the presence of antibodies against YFV, dengue virus 1\u20134 (DENV), Zika virus, West Nile virus (WNV), and Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV). We found evidence of seropositive NPs with homotypic reactivity to SLEV 11.6% (10\/86), DENV 10.5% (9\/86), and WNV 2.3% (2\/86). Heterotypic reactivity was determined in 3.5% (3\/86) of individuals against DENV, 1.2% (1\/86) against SLEV, and 1.2% (1\/86) against WNV. We found that 13.9% (12\/86) of NPs were positive for an undetermined flavivirus species. No antibodies against DENV-3, DENV-4, YFV, or ZIKV were found. This work provides compelling serological evidence of flavivirus exposure in Costa Rican NPs, in particular to DENV, SLEV, and WNV. The range of years of sampling and the region from where positives were detected coincide with those in which peaks of DENV in human populations were registered, suggesting bidirectional exposure due to human\u2013wildlife contact or bridging vectors. Our work suggests the continuous exposure of wildlife populations to various flaviviruses of public health importance and underscores the necessity of further surveillance of flaviviruses at the human\u2013wildlife interface in Central America.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/insects12060554","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,15]],"date-time":"2021-06-15T11:00:33Z","timestamp":1623754833000},"page":"554","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Serosurvey of Nonhuman Primates in Costa Rica at the Human\u2013Wildlife Interface Reveals High Exposure to Flaviviruses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6237-0678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Chaves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biology, University of Costa Rica, San Jos\u00e9 11501-2060, Costa Rica"},{"name":"Department of Ethology, Wildlife and Laboratory Animals, School of Veterinary and Zootechnics, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Ciudad Universitaria, Av. Universidad #3000, Mexico City 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martha","family":"Piche-Ovares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology-CIET (Center of Research in Tropical Diseases), University of Costa Rica, San Jos\u00e9 2060-1000, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4980-4344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos N.","family":"Ibarra-Cerde\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Ecology, Cinvestav M\u00e9rida, Yucat\u00e1n 97310, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eugenia","family":"Corrales-Aguilar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology-CIET (Center of Research in Tropical Diseases), University of Costa Rica, San Jos\u00e9 2060-1000, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gerardo","family":"Suz\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ethology, Wildlife and Laboratory Animals, School of Veterinary and Zootechnics, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Ciudad Universitaria, Av. Universidad #3000, Mexico City 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andres","family":"Moreira-Soto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology-CIET (Center of Research in Tropical Diseases), University of Costa Rica, San Jos\u00e9 2060-1000, Costa Rica"},{"name":"Institute of Virology, Charit\u00e9-Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin Humboldt-Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, 10098 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gustavo A.","family":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Espeleta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biology, University of Costa Rica, San Jos\u00e9 11501-2060, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holbrook, M.R. (2017). 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