{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T17:06:28Z","timestamp":1790787988503,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,22]],"date-time":"2022-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647907200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OPP1148615"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1148615"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Insects"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits (ATSB) deployed outdoors are likely to be particularly effective against outdoor biting mosquitoes and, if they contain insecticides with a different mode of action, mosquitoes resistant to pyrethroids. One such ATSB based on the neonicotinoid dinotefuran is currently under evaluation in Africa. As with any insecticide-based intervention, it will be important to monitor for the possible emergence of vector resistance. While methods for detecting resistance to insecticides via tarsal contact are recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), these may not be applicable for orally ingested insecticides. Here, a new ingestion assay, appropriate for a controlled laboratory setting, is described using fluorescein sodium salt (uranine) as a feeding marker. Conventional topical application bioassays, more appropriate for routine deployment, have also been used to apply dinotefuran to the thorax of adult Anopheles mosquitoes with an organic carrier to bypass lipid cuticle barriers. The two methods were compared by establishing lethal doses (LD) in several Anopheles strains. The similarity of the ratios of susceptibility to dinotefuran between pairs of pyrethroid susceptible and resistant strains validates topical application as a suitable, more practical and field applicable method for monitoring for the emergence of resistance to orally ingested dinotefuran. A discriminating dose is proposed, which will be further validated against field populations and used to routinely monitor for the emergence of resistance alongside ATSB trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/insects13040311","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,22]],"date-time":"2022-03-22T23:30:23Z","timestamp":1647991823000},"page":"311","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["A Practical Insecticide Resistance Monitoring Bioassay for Orally Ingested Dinotefuran in Anopheles Malaria Vectors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3384-7729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George John Ian","family":"Parsons","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4232-9125","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosemary Susan","family":"Lees","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK"},{"name":"Innovation to Impact, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Balaska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, 73100 Heraklion, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Crete, Vassilika Vouton, 71409 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Vontas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, 73100 Heraklion, Greece"},{"name":"Pesticide Science Laboratory, Department of Crop Science, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15535","article-title":"The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015","volume":"526","author":"Bhatt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03684-4","article-title":"Estimating the potential impact of Attractive Targeted Sugar Baits (ATSBs) as a new vector control tool for Plasmodium falciparum malaria","volume":"20","author":"Fraser","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-3132-0","article-title":"Large-scale field trial of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) for the control of malaria vector mosquitoes in Mali, West Africa","volume":"19","author":"Traore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"WHO (2016). Test Procedures for Insecticide Resistance Monitoring in Malaria Vector MOSQUITOES, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Brogdon, W., and Chan, A. (2010). Guideline for Evaluating Insecticide Resistance in Vectors Using the CDC Bottle Bioassay, Centers for Disease Control."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1603\/ME12213","article-title":"Innovative sugar-insecticide feeding bioassay for adult female Anopheles gambiae (diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"50","author":"Stell","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2012.01048.x","article-title":"Proof of concept for a novel insecticide bioassay based on sugar feeding by adult Aedes aegypti (Stegomyia aegypti)","volume":"27","author":"Stell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.1921","article-title":"Spinosad resistance development in wild olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae) populations in California","volume":"66","author":"Kakani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3774-3","article-title":"Characterisation of Anopheles strains used for laboratory screening of new vector control products","volume":"12","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2005.00574.x","article-title":"Laboratory selection for and characteristics of pyrethroid resistance in the malaria vector Anopheles funestus","volume":"19","author":"Hunt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0146021","article-title":"Dose-response analysis using R","volume":"10","author":"Ritz","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"R Core Team (2021, December 07). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.r-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickham, H. (2016). ggplot2 Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis (Use R!), Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24277-4"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2021, December 07). Guidelines for Testing Mosquito Adulticides for Indoor Residual Spraying and Treatment of Mosquito Nets. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO-CDS-NTD-WHOPES-GCDPP-2006.3."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2021, December 10). WHO Guidelines for Efficacy Testing of Insecticides for Indoor and Outdoor Ground-Applied Space Spray Applications Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases Who Pesticide Evaluation Scheme. Available online: file:\/\/\/C:\/Users\/MDPI\/Downloads\/WHO_HTM_NTD_WHOPES_2009.2_eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022). Determining Discriminating Concentrations of Insecticides for Monitoring Resistance in Mosquitoes: Report of a Multi-Centre Laboratory Study and WHO Expert Consultations, World Health Organization. (In preparation)."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pestbp.2020.104595","article-title":"Using CRISPR\/Cas9 genome modification to understand the genetic basis of insecticide resistance: Drosophila and beyond","volume":"167","author":"Douris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1009556","article-title":"CRISPR\/Cas9 modified An. Gambiae carrying kdr mutation L1014F functionally validate its contribution in insecticide resistance and combined effect with metabolic enzymes","volume":"17","author":"Grigoraki","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Genet."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2021, December 10). Insecticide Resistance Advisory Committee (IRAC) Modes of Action (MoA) Classification. Available online: https:\/\/irac-online.org\/modes-of-action\/."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ento.48.091801.112731","article-title":"Selective toxicity of neonicotinoids attributable to specificity of insect and mammalian nicotinic receptors","volume":"48","author":"Tomizawa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-99061-x","article-title":"Experimental evolution supports the potential of neonicotinoid-pyrethroid combination for managing insecticide resistance in malaria vectors","volume":"11","author":"Zoh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04997-8","article-title":"Assessing the anti-resistance potential of public health vaporizer formulations and insecticide mixtures with pyrethroids using transgenic Drosophila lines","volume":"14","author":"Luong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2888-6","article-title":"Susceptibility testing of Anopheles malaria vectors with the neonicotinoid insecticide clothianidin; Results from 16 African countries, in preparation for indoor residual spraying with new insecticide formulations","volume":"18","author":"Oxborough","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2685-2","article-title":"Evaluation of toxicity of clothianidin (neonicotinoid) and chlorfenapyr (pyrrole) insecticides and cross-resistance to other public health insecticides in Anopheles arabiensis from Ethiopia","volume":"18","author":"Dagg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2858-z","article-title":"Diagnostic dose determination and efficacy of chlorfenapyr and clothianidin insecticides against Anopheles malaria vector populations of western Kenya","volume":"18","author":"Agumba","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malar. J."}],"container-title":["Insects"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4450\/13\/4\/311\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:41:03Z","timestamp":1760136063000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4450\/13\/4\/311"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,22]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["insects13040311"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/insects13040311","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4450"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4450","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,22]]}}}