{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T05:34:15Z","timestamp":1761802455940,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761609600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IIS-2014547"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IIS-2014547"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the National Institutes of Health","award":["U19AI181594","5U01AI155361"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U19AI181594","5U01AI155361"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA Earth Science Education Collaborative","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX16AE28A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX16AE28A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000200","name":"The United States Agency for International Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AID-OAA-F-16-00099"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AID-OAA-F-16-00099"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000200","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000194","name":"The U.S. Department of State","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["SLMAQM17CA2O74"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SLMAQM17CA2O74"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000194","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Insects"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anopheles stephensi is an invasive and deadly malaria vector with the ability to use artificial containers as larval habitats. This ability is unique for malaria vectors in Africa and requires distinct surveillance strategies for early detection and rapid response. In this study, we trained a variety of artificial intelligence (AI) image recognition algorithms, using thousands of smartphone photos of laboratory-authenticated An. stephensi and seven endemic mosquito species, to develop a citizen science-friendly tool for An. stephensi detection. In Antananarivo, Madagascar, citizen science observations of &gt;132 Anopheles spp. larvae from multiple artificial containers\u2014including one closeup photo of a larva, from a tire\u2014were submitted via NASA\u2019s GLOBE Observer app in March 2020 and discovered years later. Given that genetic testing was no longer possible, this photo was used as a proof-of-concept to determine whether the AI species identification could be used on citizen science-generated images. The tire larva was classified as An. stephensi by all 11 species models, which yielded high accuracy and confidence (up to 99.34%) and included a false positive rate of &lt;1%. Furthermore, explainable AI (XAI) heat maps led to the discovery of dark spots in abdominal segment VI corresponding to testes, corroborating a separate classification of the tire larva as male by the sex model. All available evidence suggests that AI image identification would have flagged this larva as a suspect An. stephensi, which could have been submitted to a molecular laboratory for further confirmation. Results demonstrate the power of integrating citizen science and AI\u2014for which we provide free online tools\u2014as a low-cost signal for malaria programs to confirm and respond to, and as complementary surveillance to fill the critical knowledge gaps in the distribution of invasive An. stephensi across Africa and beyond.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/insects16111098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T09:16:07Z","timestamp":1761642967000},"page":"1098","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Artificial Intelligence and Citizen Science as a Tool for Global Mosquito Surveillance: Madagascar Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5537-5366","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryan M.","family":"Carney","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida (USF), Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0349-9703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Farhat","family":"Azam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bellini College of AI, Cybersecurity and Computing, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Karlene","family":"Gehrisch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida (USF), Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tanvir","family":"Bhuiyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bellini College of AI, Cybersecurity and Computing, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7103-3972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lala S.","family":"Rafarasoa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Entomology, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4552-2631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Val\u00e9ry","family":"Riantsoa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Entomology, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7912-4350","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Russanne D.","family":"Low","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Arlington, VA 22202, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Zohdy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Entomology Branch, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tovo M.","family":"Andrianjafy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Entomology, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mamisoa A.","family":"Ramahazomanana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Entomology, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ranto N.","family":"Rasolofo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Entomology, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8685-0900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pradeep A.","family":"Subramani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Health and Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Madison","family":"Ogbondah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Health and Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3057-5107","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"Jr.","given":"Johnny A.","family":"Uelmen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida (USF), Tampa, FL 33620, USA"},{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin (UW), Madison, WI 53575, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5330-8549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sriram","family":"Chellappan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bellini College of AI, Cybersecurity and Computing, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). World Malaria Report 2021, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/teams\/global-malaria-programme\/reports\/world-malaria-report-2021."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"President\u2019s Malaria Initiative (2025, May 07). Measure Malaria: Madagascar\u2014Malaria. n.d. Available online: https:\/\/measuremalaria.cpc.unc.edu\/countries\/madagascar\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"United Nations (2025, May 07). Population Division Data Portal. Available online: https:\/\/population.un.org\/dataportal\/data\/indicators\/49\/locations\/450\/start\/2025\/end\/2025\/table\/pivotbylocation?df=100d9a13-37d8-4cee-8abf-cb2afd555c8f."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, May 07). WHO Initiative to Stop the Spread of Anopheles stephensi in Africa. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO-UCN-GMP-2022.06."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moustapha, L.M., Sanda, A.-N.H., Mukhtar, M.M., Muhammad, A., Einoi, H.K., Aliyu, Y.Y., Adamu, S., Moudalabi, T.M., Lawali, I.Y., and Moussa, A.H.D. (2025). First detection and entomological characterisation of invasive malaria vector Anopheles stephensi in sympatry with other vectors in Gayi Southern Niger Republic. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-07389-5"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2706.204557","article-title":"Role of Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes in malaria outbreak, Djibouti, 2019","volume":"27","author":"Khaireh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3203","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02641-9","article-title":"Evidence for a role of Anopheles stephensi in the spread of drug- and diagnosis-resistant malaria in Africa","volume":"29","author":"Emiru","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2702.200019","article-title":"Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes as vectors of Plasmodium vivax and falciparum, Horn of Africa, 2019","volume":"27","author":"Tadesse","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03801-3","article-title":"An update on the distribution, bionomics, and insecticide susceptibility of Anopheles stephensi in Ethiopia, 2018\u20132020","volume":"20","author":"Balkew","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24900","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2003976117","article-title":"A new malaria vector in Africa: Predicting the expansion range of Anopheles stephensi and identifying the urban populations at risk","volume":"117","author":"Sinka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06213-0","article-title":"Five years following first detection of Anopheles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae) in Djibouti, Horn of Africa: Populations established\u2014Malaria emerging","volume":"118","author":"Seyfarth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahn, J., Sinka, M., Irish, S.R., and Zohdy, S. (2023). Modeling marine cargo traffic to identify countries in Africa with greatest risk of invasion by Anopheles stephensi. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-27439-0"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, May 07). Vector Alert: Anopheles stephensi Invasion and Spread. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/26-08-2019-vector-alert-anopheles-stephensi-invasion-and-spread."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"President\u2019s Malaria Initiative (2025, May 07). PMI Technical Guidance for FY 2023. Available online: https:\/\/mesamalaria.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/PMI-Guidelines-2023-Operational-Research-PUBLIC_PMI-FY2023-Technical-Guidance_508_031722.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3904-y","article-title":"Geographical distribution of Anopheles stephensi in eastern Ethiopia","volume":"13","author":"Balkew","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"President\u2019s Malaria Initiative (2025, May 07). PMI Action Plan to Respond to the Threat of Anopheles stephensi in Africa, Available online: https:\/\/stacks.cdc.gov\/view\/cdc\/132195."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.5334\/cstp.616","article-title":"Citizen science as an approach for responding to the threat of Anopheles stephensi in Africa","volume":"8","author":"Carney","year":"2023","journal-title":"Citiz. Sci. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carney, R.M., Mapes, C., Low, R.D., Long, A., Bowser, A., Durieux, D., Rivera, K., Dekramanjian, B., Bartumeus, F., and Guerrero, D. (2022). Integrating global citizen science platforms to enable next-generation surveillance of invasive and vector mosquitoes. Insects, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/insects13080675"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00914-9","article-title":"Citizen science provides a reliable and scalable tool to track disease-carrying mosquitoes","volume":"8","author":"Palmer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.5334\/cstp.747","article-title":"GLOBE Observer: A case study in advancing earth system knowledge with AI-powered citizen science","volume":"9","author":"Nelson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Citiz. Sci. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Low, R.D., Schwerin, T.G., Boger, R.A., Soeffing, C., Nelson, P.V., Bartlett, D., Ingle, P., Kimura, M., and Clark, A. (2022). Building international capacity for citizen scientist engagement in mosquito surveillance and mitigation: The GLOBE Program\u2019s GLOBE Observer Mosquito Habitat Mapper. Insects, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/insects13070624"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Rafarasoa, L.S., and Randrianaivo, G.G. (2025, May 07). Year 2020 surveillance of Aedes albopictus mosquitoes vectors of Zika in urban area, Available online: https:\/\/www.globe.gov\/documents\/10157\/2433430b-66be-43b7-b158-0b214ce5f88b."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s12942-023-00350-7","article-title":"Global Mosquito Observations Dashboard (GMOD): Creating a user-friendly web interface fueled by citizen science to monitor invasive and vector mosquitoes","volume":"22","author":"Uelmen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Naldi, M.C., and Bianchi, R.A.C. (2023). Development of a deep learning model for the classification of mosquito larvae images. Brazilian Conference on Intelligent Systems, Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Part III."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Benedict, M.Q. (2015). Methods in Anopheles Research."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Andrianjafy, T.M., Uelmen, J.A., Rasolofo, R.N., Ramahazomanana, M.A., and Carney, R.M. Urban larval mosquito surveillance in Antananarivo, Madagascar: Spatiotemporal heterogeneity and associated vector dynamics, in review."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Tan, M., and Le, Q. (2019, January 9\u201315). EfficientNet: Rethinking model scaling for convolutional neural networks. Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Learning, Long Beach, CA, USA. PMLR."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"4278","article-title":"Inception-v4, Inception-ResNet and the impact of residual connections on learning","volume":"31","author":"Szegedy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. AAAI Conf. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Khosla, A., Lapedriza, A., Oliva, A., and Torralba, A. (2016, January 27\u201330). Learning deep features for discriminative localization. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.319"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1007\/s11263-019-01228-7","article-title":"Grad-CAM: Visual explanations from deep networks via gradient-based localization","volume":"128","author":"Selvaraju","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chollet, F. (2017, January 21\u201326). Xception: Deep learning with depthwise separable convolutions. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2017.195"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, J., Dong, W., Socher, R., Li, L.J., Li, K., and Fei-Fei, L. (2009, January 20\u201325). Imagenet: A large-scale hierarchical image database. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2009.5206848"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.2987\/5584.1","article-title":"Morphological sexual dimorphism in three species of anopheline mosquito larvae","volume":"24","author":"Suman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1508\/cytologia.24.447","article-title":"Chromosome behaviour during spermatogenesis of Anopheles stephensi sensu stricto","volume":"24","author":"Rishikesh","year":"1959","journal-title":"Cytologia"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1912.11687086","article-title":"Note on the sex of mosquito larvae","volume":"6","author":"Adie","year":"1912","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. and Par."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Gehrisch, K., Morris, P.J.R., and Carney, R.M. (2025). Geometric Morphometric Analyses of Mosquito larvae, with Implications for Surveillance and Control. In preparation."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1236192","article-title":"Wolbachia invades Anopheles stephensi populations and induces refractoriness to Plasmodium infection","volume":"340","author":"Bian","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E6736","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1521077112","article-title":"Highly efficient Cas9-mediated gene drive for population modification of the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles stephensi","volume":"112","author":"Gantz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cois.2015.05.011","article-title":"Back to the future: The sterile insect technique against mosquito disease vectors","volume":"10","author":"Lees","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Insect Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2025.06.001","article-title":"Preventing the establishment of invasive exotic mosquitoes","volume":"41","author":"Bouyer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)50564-9","article-title":"The sex of the larv\u00e6 of mosquitoes and other experimental work","volume":"179","author":"Adie","year":"1912","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/11250007409430084","article-title":"Testis maturation in Anopheles atroparvus van Thiel","volume":"41","author":"Cadeddu","year":"1974","journal-title":"Boll. Zool."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit (2025, February 21). Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit Website. Available online: https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250329082247\/https:\/\/wrbu.si.edu."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2008.09.017","article-title":"A review on Anopheles culicifacies: From bionomics to control with special reference to Indian subcontinent","volume":"109","author":"Barik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iyaloo, D.P., Zohdy, S., Carney, R.M., Mosawa, V.R., Elahee, K.B., Munglee, N., Latchooman, N., Puryag, S., Bheecarry, A., and Bhoobun, H. (2024). A regional One Health approach to the risk of invasion by Anopheles stephensi in Mauritius. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011827"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2301666120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2301666120","article-title":"Urban malaria may be spreading via the wind\u2014here\u2019s why that\u2019s important","volume":"120","author":"Lehmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adeogun, A., Babalola, A.S., Okoko, O.O., Oyeniyi, T., Omotayo, A., Izekor, R.T., Adetunji, O., Olakiigbe, A., Olagundoye, O., and Adeleke, M. (2023). Spatial distribution and ecological niche modeling of geographical spread of Anopheles gambiae complex in Nigeria using real time data. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-40929-5"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, March 19). Malaria Threats Map. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/malaria\/maps\/threats\/."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"353","article-title":"Mosquito bite-induced color change in chameleon skin","volume":"54","author":"Garcia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Herpetol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2025, April 11). Integrated Mosquito Management, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mosquitoes\/php\/toolkit\/integrated-mosquito-management-1.html."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Pan American Health Organization (2025, May 07). Risk Communication and Community Engagement for Zika Virus Prevention and Control. Available online: https:\/\/www3.paho.org\/hq\/dmdocuments\/2016\/2016-risk-com-comunity-engag-zika-preven-cont.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Environmental Protection Agency (2025, May 07). Success in Mosquito Control: An Integrated Approach, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/mosquitocontrol\/success-mosquito-control-integrated-approach."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1015","DOI":"10.52225\/narra.v5i1.1015","article-title":"Community-based intervention in mosquito control strategy: A systematic review","volume":"5","author":"Yulfi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Narra J."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025). Malaria Control in Emergencies: Field Manual, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Azam, F.B., Carney, R.M., and Chellappan, S. (2025, January 14\u201317). Deep learning-based classification of Anopheles stephensi adult mosquitoes with enhanced solutions for data imbalance. Proceedings of the 2025 47th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Copenhagen, Denmark. In press."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azam, F.B., Carney, R.M., Kariev, S., Nallan, K., Subramanian, M., Sampath, G., Kumar, A., and Chellappan, S. (2023). Classifying stages in the gonotrophic cycle of mosquitoes from images using computer vision techniques. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-47266-7"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"The GLOBE Program (2025, May 07). Mosquito Habitats Resource Library\u2014GLOBE Observer\u2014GLOBE.gov. n.d, Available online: https:\/\/observer.globe.gov\/do-globe-observer\/mosquito-habitats\/resource-library."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"The GLOBE Program (2025, September 19). Protocol eTraining Modules\u2014GLOBE.gov. n.d, Available online: https:\/\/www.globe.gov\/get-trained\/protocol-etraining\/protocol-etraining-modules\/etraining-modules\/16867649\/12273."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-3144-9","article-title":"Key to the females of Afrotropical Anopheles mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"19","author":"Coetzee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Malaria J."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Grejbine, A. (1966). Insectes dipt\u00e8res Culicidae: Anophelinae."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-023-00296-7","article-title":"Implications of climate change and Anopheles stephensi Liston in Africa: Knowledge gaps and lessons from history","volume":"10","author":"Pecor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Trop. Med. Rep."}],"container-title":["Insects"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4450\/16\/11\/1098\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T05:32:04Z","timestamp":1761802324000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4450\/16\/11\/1098"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["insects16111098"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/insects16111098","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4450"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2075-4450"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]}}}