{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T19:04:54Z","timestamp":1782932694333,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761696000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fundacion \u201cLa Caixa\u201d through the project ARBOPREVENT","award":["HR22-00123"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HR22-00123"]}]},{"name":"public institution Diputaci\u00f3n de Sevilla","award":["7801ROR\/jag00535"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["7801ROR\/jag00535"]}]},{"name":"pest control company Athisa Medio Ambiente","award":["4850\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4850\/2024"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Insects"],"abstract":"<jats:p>West Nile Virus (WNV) is an emerging arboviral threat in Europe, with rising incidence in Spain since 2004. In 2024, Spain experienced its largest outbreak, primarily in small urban areas of south-western regions. We report a subset of an emergency integrated vector management program, focusing on six municipalities accounting for one-third of all human WNV cases nationwide. Over four months, 725 potential larval sites were inspected during 4026 visits. Adult mosquitoes (n = 2553) were collected with suction traps, and immature stages (n = 4457) with dipper techniques, yielding 11 species. Culex pipiens s.l. was predominant, while Cx. perexiguus, though less abundant, was epidemiologically significant. Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) gene phylogenetic analysis confirmed Cx. perexiguus, forming a distinct clade from Cx. univittatus. Immature mosquitoes were found in 18.6% of sites, especially irrigation canals, ditches, and backwaters near urban areas. Habitat differences in larval abundance were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. Targeted larviciding with Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) and focal adulticiding with cypermethrin totaled 259 interventions (70.4% larviciding, 29.6% adulticiding). A significant 63.9% reduction in larval abundance was observed after five consecutive Bti treatments, with some variation among treatment cycles (52.2\u201375.5%). Adult activity persisted into late autumn. This study provides the first comprehensive characterization of larval mosquitoes in Spain\u2019s main WNV hotspot, highlighting the need for rapid, coordinated expert interventions and extended seasonal control to prevent future outbreaks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/insects16111100","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T17:38:22Z","timestamp":1761759502000},"page":"1100","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Rapid-Response Vector Surveillance and Emergency Control During the Largest West Nile Virus Outbreak in Southern Spain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5754-862X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikel Alexander","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Entomolog\u00eda y Sanidad Ambiental, Athisa Medio Ambiente (Grupo SASTI), C\/Herrer\u00eda-4, 41210 Sevilla, Spain"},{"name":"Estaci\u00f3n Biol\u00f3gica de Do\u00f1ana (EBD, CSIC), Avda, Am\u00e9rico Vespucio, 26, 41092 Sevilla, Spain"},{"name":"Ciber de Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica (CIBERESP), Avda, Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8345-3229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Barcel\u00f3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Zoology and Animal Conservation Group, University of the Balearic Islands (ZAP\u2014UIB), 07122 Palma, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4037-7438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Muriel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tragsatec, Grupo Tragsa\u2014SEPI, C\/Parsi 5, n\u00ba8, 41016 Sevilla, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan Jes\u00fas","family":"Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Entomolog\u00eda y Sanidad Ambiental, Athisa Medio Ambiente (Grupo SASTI), C\/Herrer\u00eda-4, 41210 Sevilla, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eduardo","family":"Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Entomolog\u00eda y Sanidad Ambiental, Athisa Medio Ambiente (Grupo SASTI), C\/Herrer\u00eda-4, 41210 Sevilla, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4664-9011","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordi","family":"Figuerola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Estaci\u00f3n Biol\u00f3gica de Do\u00f1ana (EBD, CSIC), Avda, Am\u00e9rico Vespucio, 26, 41092 Sevilla, Spain"},{"name":"Ciber de Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica (CIBERESP), Avda, Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3481-7310","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Bravo-Barriga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Health (Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases), Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sanidad Animal Building, Rabanales Campus, University of Cordoba, 14014 C\u00f3rdoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05333-4","article-title":"Robust Network Stability of Mosquitoes and Human Pathogens of Medical Importance","volume":"15","author":"Yee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.11.020","article-title":"The Emergence of Arthropod-Borne Viral Diseases: A Global Prospective on Dengue, Chikungunya and Zika Fevers","volume":"166","author":"Mayer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-024-01026-0","article-title":"Effects of Climate Change and Human Activities on Vector-Borne Diseases","volume":"22","author":"Weaver","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. 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