{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T10:15:35Z","timestamp":1779099335346,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770940800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"National Council for Scientific and Technological Development","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["350679\/2022\u20133"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["350679\/2022\u20133"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004263","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["24\/2551-0001323-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24\/2551-0001323-7"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004263","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Insects"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is an important source of nutrition for humans, providing essential nutrients such as protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Its cultivation is highly attractive to flower-visiting insects, which find abundant nectar and a moderate amount of pollen grains. This study aimed to characterize the taxonomic diversity and composition of flower-visiting insect communities in buckwheat crops across two sites in Chitwan district, Nepal and to assess whether temperature and relative humidity influence community structure. We further quantified the contribution of insect pollination to buckwheat yield by comparing pollinator-excluded plots (net-covered) with open-pollinated plots. In addition, we estimated the economic value of insect-mediated pollination and the nutritional contribution of buckwheat production on a per capita basis. Data were analyzed using non-metric multidimensional scaling, permutational multivariate analysis of variance, similarity percentage analysis, and (generalized) linear mixed-effects models. We found significant differences in flower-visiting insect community composition between the two study sites, independent of temperature and relative humidity, with twelve taxa contributing most to this dissimilarity. Open-pollinated plots exhibited higher buckwheat yields than pollinator-excluded plots, highlighting the importance of insect visitation for crop production. Despite the presence of managed Apis species, we recorded frequent visitation by flies and solitary bees, indicating that these taxa are likely important contributors to buckwheat pollination at local scales. Similarly, insect-mediated pollination significantly increased buckwheat production, and its absence would result in substantial economic losses of USD 2.6 million and reduced nutritional contributions, highlighting the vulnerability of buckwheat-based food security for the Nepalese communities due to pollinator decline.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/insects17020200","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T09:09:19Z","timestamp":1770973759000},"page":"200","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Flower-Visiting Insect Diversity Within Buckwheat Crops: An Underutilized Crop for Sustainable Economic Livelihoods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7365-0851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kedar","family":"Devkota","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural and Forestry University, Chitwan 13712, Nepal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7695-9013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Prashant","family":"Rijal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Tribhuwan University, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5181-2461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles Fernando","family":"dos Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Fitossanidade, Faculdade de Agronomia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 91540-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"World agricultural production and consumption","volume":"1","author":"Smutka","year":"2009","journal-title":"AGRIS On-Line Pap. Econ. Inform."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"565","article-title":"Russia\u2019s food self-sufficiency and food security: An assessment","volume":"30","author":"Wegren","year":"2018","journal-title":"Post-Communist Econ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raza, A., Razzaq, A., Mehmood, S.S., Zou, X., Zhang, X., Lv, Y., and Xu, J. (2019). Impact of Climate Change on Crops Adaptation and Strategies to Tackle Its Outcome: A Review. Plants, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants8020034"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2022.105551","article-title":"Agriculture and food security under a changing climate: An underestimated challenge","volume":"25","author":"Seppelt","year":"2022","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac7287","article-title":"Mutually beneficial pollinator diversity and crop yield outcomes in small and large farms","volume":"351","author":"Garibaldi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2011.03.020","article-title":"Pollination services in the UK: How important are honeybees?","volume":"142","author":"Breeze","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2006.3721","article-title":"Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops","volume":"274","author":"Klein","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Potts, S.G. (2016). The Assessment Report on Pollinators, Pollination and Food Production: Summary for Policymakers, Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3516","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.14736","article-title":"Global agricultural productivity is threatened by increasing pollinator dependence without a parallel increase in crop diversification","volume":"25","author":"Aizen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hristov, P., Neov, B., Shumkova, R., and Palova, N. (2020). Significance of Apoidea as Main Pollinators. Ecological and Economic Impact and Implications for Human Nutrition. Diversity, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/d12070280"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255957","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1255957","article-title":"Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers","volume":"347","author":"Goulson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"93","article-title":"Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.) and Pollination Issues: Current status, impacts and potential drivers of decline","volume":"7","author":"Paudel","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Kluser, S., and Peduzzi, P. (2007). Global Pollinator Decline: A Litterature Review, UNEP\/GRID Europe."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"FAO (2024). The State of Food and Agriculture 2024\u2014Value-Driven Transformation of Agrifood Systems, FAO."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"2738045","article-title":"An Overview: Distribution, Production, and Diversity of Local Landraces of Buckwheat in Nepal","volume":"2017","author":"Luitel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Agric."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7896","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5b02498","article-title":"Buckwheat as a Functional Food and Its Effects on Health","volume":"63","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Yang, P., Yang, Q., Gong, X., Ma, H., Dang, K., Chen, G., Gao, X., and Feng, B. (2019). Analysis of Flavonoid Metabolites in Buckwheat Leaves Using UPLC-ESI-MS\/MS. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24071310"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/tax.601013","article-title":"Taxonomy of Polygonoideae (Polygonaceae): A new tribal classification","volume":"60","author":"Sanchez","year":"2011","journal-title":"TAXON"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"513641","article-title":"Influence of Commercial Saturated Monoglyceride, Mono-\/Diglycerides Mixtures, Vegetable Oil, Stirring Speed, and Temperature on the Physical Properties of Organogels","volume":"2014","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7348.2009.00326.x","article-title":"Contribution of small insects to pollination of common buckwheat, a distylous crop","volume":"155","author":"Taki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Appl. Biol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.3329\/jbcbm.v9i1.66636","article-title":"Insect Diversity and Pollination Effect on Buckwheat (Fagopyrum Esculentum) Yield","volume":"9","author":"Akter","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Biodivers. Conserv. Bioresour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khalifa, S.A.M., Elshafiey, E.H., Shetaia, A.A., El-Wahed, A.A.A., Algethami, A.F., Musharraf, S.G., AlAjmi, M.F., Zhao, C., Masry, S.H.D., and Abdel-Daim, M.M. (2021). Overview of Bee Pollination and Its Economic Value for Crop Production. Insects, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/insects12080688"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2123","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.14732","article-title":"Agricultural specialisation increases the vulnerability of pollination services for smallholder farmers","volume":"61","author":"Timberlake","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.3126\/aej.v16i0.19845","article-title":"Profitability and resource use efficiency of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) production in Chitwan District, Nepal","volume":"16","author":"Dhakal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.2009.00108.x","article-title":"A framework for comparing pollinator performance: Effectiveness and efficiency","volume":"85","author":"Potts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1570-7458.2009.00826.x","article-title":"Elevated pan traps to monitor bees in flowering crop canopies","volume":"131","author":"Tuell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Entomol. Exp. Appl."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1093\/ee\/nvv001","article-title":"Survey of Soybean Insect Pollinators: Community Identification and Sampling Method Analysis","volume":"44","author":"Gill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13819","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70518-9","article-title":"Netting and Pan Traps Fail to Identify the Pollinator Guild of an Agricultural Crop","volume":"10","author":"Boyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-4598.2009.00074.x","article-title":"Spatial patterns of bee captures in North American bowl trapping surveys","volume":"3","author":"Droege","year":"2010","journal-title":"Insect Conserv. Divers."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1080\/10618600.1996.10474713","article-title":"R: A Language for Data Analysis and Graphics","volume":"5","author":"Ihaka","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Comput. Graph. Stat."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2020). A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing: Reference Index, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oksanen, J., Simpson, G.L., Blanchet, F.G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P.R., O\u2019Hara, R.B., Solymos, P., Stevens, M.H.H., and Szoecs, E. (2025, December 01). Vegan: Community Ecology Package, Available online:  https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32614\/CRAN.package.vegan.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.vegan"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and Walker, S. (2025, December 01). lme4: Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using \u201cEigen\u201d and S4, Available online:  https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32614\/CRAN.package.lme4.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.lme4"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00056670","article-title":"Insect natural history, multi-species interactions and biodiversity in ecosystems","volume":"2","author":"Miller","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3005","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-017-1453-2","article-title":"Forest biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services","volume":"26","author":"Brockerhoff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.4236\/ae.2018.62006","article-title":"The Importance of Insects in Agricultural Ecosystems","volume":"6","author":"Jankielsohn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14412","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.250483797","article-title":"Insect herbivory accelerates nutrient cycling and increases plant production","volume":"97","author":"Belovsky","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakravarthy, A.K., and Sridhara, S. (2016). Soil Biodiversity and Arthropods: Role in Soil Fertility. Economic and Ecological Significance of Arthropods in Diversified Ecosystems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-1524-3"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polacco, J.C. (2011). Ecological Aspects of Nitrogen Metabolism in Plants, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470959404"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0706.2009.17491.x","article-title":"The functional consequences of diversity in plant\u2013pollinator interactions","volume":"118","author":"Perfectti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12040","article-title":"Comparison of pollinators and natural enemies: A meta-analysis of landscape and local effects on abundance and richness in crops","volume":"88","author":"Shackelford","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e328","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.328","article-title":"Contribution of insect pollinators to crop yield and quality varies with agricultural intensification","volume":"2","author":"Bartomeus","year":"2014","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"8876388","article-title":"The Use of Honeybee Hives May Boost Yields of Some Crops in Nepal","volume":"2021","author":"Devkota","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psyche J. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-74004-9_1","article-title":"The Various Effects of Insects on Ecosystem Functioning","volume":"Volume 173","author":"Weisser","year":"2008","journal-title":"Insects and Ecosystem Function"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.3390\/land3030693","article-title":"Landscape and Local Controls of Insect Biodiversity in Conservation Grasslands: Implications for the Conservation of Ecosystem Service Providers in Agricultural Environments","volume":"3","author":"Crist","year":"2014","journal-title":"Land"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12499","article-title":"Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in naturally assembled communities","volume":"94","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25037","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-75584-x","article-title":"Assessing the Economic and Nutritional Value of Pollination Services in Nepal","volume":"14","author":"Devkota","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Insects"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4450\/17\/2\/200\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,15]],"date-time":"2026-02-15T05:19:41Z","timestamp":1771132781000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4450\/17\/2\/200"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["insects17020200"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/insects17020200","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4450"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4450","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]]}}}