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However, their genomic evolution and ecological adaptation mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we focused on the genome analysis of Eretmocerus hayati and performed a comparative analysis with four other species from Aphelinidae. Our results indicated that the divergence time of Aphelinidae was approximately 119.9 million years ago. In Er. hayati, gene families related to energy metabolism and humoral immunity have significantly expanded, which may be associated with the high metabolic demands of its small body size and the immune adaptation strategies resulting from its unique parasitic methods. Additionally, genes involved in DNA replication and recombination have undergone positive selection in the ancestral branch of Aphelinidae species. Compared with 23 species within nine families in the Chalcidoidea superfamily studied here, the genome size of Er. hayati is the largest. The analysis of repetitive sequences revealed a recent burst of long terminal repeat (LTR) sequence insertions in the genome of Er. hayati. Our study indicates the evolutionary characteristics of Er. hayati in terms of gene family evolution, chromosomal collinearity, and transposon dynamics, providing a theoretical basis for understanding the environmental adaptation and biological control applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/insects17040369","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T16:34:08Z","timestamp":1774974848000},"page":"369","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genomic Expansion and Adaptation in a Parasitoid Wasp Eretmocerus hayati (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-8734-4137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuwei","family":"Zhong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Horticulture, Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China"},{"name":"Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Biology and Ecological Regulation of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunyun","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang Tianmushan National Nature Reserve Administration, Hangzhou 311311, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4893-3307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruoxin","family":"Ruan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Horticulture, Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5728-8269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dujun","family":"Xi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Horticulture, Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5257-647X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huifeng","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Horticulture, Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ce","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenyang Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Management for Vegetable Diseases and Insect Pests, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Horticulture, Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0835-2700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yinquan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Biology and Ecological Regulation of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ento.51.110104.151029","article-title":"Evolution of developmental strategies in parasitic Hymenoptera","volume":"51","author":"Pennacchio","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annu. 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