{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T11:39:32Z","timestamp":1791632372109,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":200,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FAR 2025 from the University of Insubria"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00s409261","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Insects"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Insects represent powerful experimental systems for investigating host\u2013microorganism interactions, providing valuable insights into bacterial pathogenicity, immune regulation, symbiosis, and antimicrobial discovery. This review examines the complex relationships between insects and bacteria, focusing on the mechanisms that control infection, immune activation, and microbial adaptation. Particular attention is given to the routes of pathogen entry and to the conserved innate immune pathways that coordinate host defenses, including the Toll, Imd, Duox, and Jak\/Stat signaling cascades. The review illustrates how bacterial pathogens exploit toxins, immune evasion strategies, and metabolic adaptation to overcome host defenses, while insects rely on tightly regulated cellular and humoral responses, antimicrobial peptides, melanization, and microbiota-mediated homeostasis. Interactions between pathogenic and commensal bacteria in the insect gut are discussed in the context of immune tolerance, dysbiosis, and ecological adaptation. The dual role of bacterial virulence factors in both pathogenesis and symbiosis is highlighted through examples involving entomopathogenic bacteria such as Photorhabdus spp., Xenorhabdus spp., and Bacillus thuringiensis. In addition, the review summarizes the use of insect models, including Drosophila melanogaster, Galleria mellonella, Bombyx mori, and Apis mellifera, in experimental infections aimed at studying virulence mechanisms, host immune responses, and antimicrobial efficacy. Finally, multi-omic approaches, including transcriptomics, metabolomics, epigenomics, and single-cell technologies are discussed as transformative tools for dissecting host\u2013microbe interactions at molecular and systems levels. Overall, insect\u2013bacteria interactions emerge as dynamic and evolutionarily shaped systems in which immunity, metabolism, microbiota composition, and environmental factors are closely interconnected, offering important perspectives for both basic research and the development of sustainable biocontrol and antimicrobial strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/insects17050515","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T13:11:31Z","timestamp":1779196291000},"page":"515","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["When Small Meets Smaller: Immune Modulation and Virulence Strategies in Insect\u2013Bacteria Interactions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4826-9385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tommaso","family":"Bianchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Entomology and Parasitology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (DiSTA), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0514-521X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maristella","family":"Mastore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Entomology and Parasitology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (DiSTA), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Davide","family":"Banfi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Entomology and Parasitology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (DiSTA), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ameni","family":"Loulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Bio-Aggressors and Integrated Protection in Agriculture, Department of Plant Health and Environment, National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage, Tunis 1082, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1295-2108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Quadroni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Ecology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1002-0422","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maurizio F.","family":"Brivio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Entomology and Parasitology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (DiSTA), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-020117-043348","article-title":"How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?","volume":"63","author":"Stork","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. 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