{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T03:03:43Z","timestamp":1790391823973,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":154,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,5]],"date-time":"2023-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688515200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCDD"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), where the heart muscle becomes stretched and thin, heart failure (HF) occurs, and the cardiomyocytes suffer from an energetic inefficiency caused by an abnormal cardiac metabolism. Although underappreciated as a potential therapeutic target, the optimal metabolic milieu of a failing heart is still largely unknown and subject to debate. Because glucose naturally has a lower P\/O ratio (the ATP yield per oxygen atom), the previous studies using this strategy to increase glucose oxidation have produced some intriguing findings. In reality, the vast majority of small-scale pilot trials using trimetazidine, ranolazine, perhexiline, and etomoxir have demonstrated enhanced left ventricular (LV) function and, in some circumstances, myocardial energetics in chronic ischemic and non-ischemic HF with a reduced ejection fraction (EF). However, for unidentified reasons, none of these drugs has ever been tested in a clinical trial of sufficient size. Other pilot studies came to the conclusion that because the heart in severe dilated cardiomyopathy appears to be metabolically flexible and not limited by oxygen, the current rationale for increasing glucose oxidation as a therapeutic target is contradicted and increasing fatty acid oxidation is supported. As a result, treating metabolic dysfunction in HF may benefit from raising ketone body levels. Interestingly, treatment with sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) improves cardiac function and outcomes in HF patients with or without type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) through a variety of pleiotropic effects, such as elevated ketone body levels. The improvement in overall cardiac function seen in patients receiving SGLT2i could be explained by this increase, which appears to be a reflection of an adaptive process that optimizes cardiac energy metabolism. This review aims to identify the best metabolic therapeutic approach for DCM patients, to examine the drugs that directly affect cardiac metabolism, and to outline all the potential ancillary metabolic effects of the guideline-directed medical therapy. In addition, a special focus is placed on SGLT2i, which were first studied and prescribed to diabetic patients before being successfully incorporated into the pharmacological arsenal for HF patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd10070287","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]],"date-time":"2023-07-06T00:41:27Z","timestamp":1688604087000},"page":"287","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Metabolic Approaches for the Treatment of Dilated Cardiomyopathy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Roberto","family":"Spoladore","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Heart Failure Clinic, Alessandro Manzoni Hospital, ASST Lecco, 23900 Lecco, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2213-2955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Daus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Post-Graduate School of Cardiovascular Medicine, Milan-Bicocca University, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Pezzini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Post-Graduate School of Cardiovascular Medicine, Milan-Bicocca University, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Damianos","family":"Kolios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Cardiology, Heart Failure Clinic, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriele","family":"Fragasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Cardiology, Heart Failure Clinic, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehm342","article-title":"Classification of the cardiomyopathies: A position statement from the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases","volume":"29","author":"Elliott","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. 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