{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T06:19:41Z","timestamp":1793513981994,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,7]],"date-time":"2024-11-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730937600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCDD"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carcinoid heart disease (CHD) affects right-sided valves and causes significant mortality and morbidity. Even though the pathophysiology of the disease is not entirely understood, it is known that chronic exposure to high levels of circulating serotonin is the main factor responsible for developing valvular heart disease. Cardiac imaging plays a critical role in the management of CHD, so the final diagnosis can be performed through multimodal imaging techniques and the measurement of biomarkers. Moreover, in observational studies, surgical treatment of carcinoid-induced valve disease has been found to improve outcomes. Despite advancements in pre-operative preparation in recent years, mortality rates remain high in elderly patients and those with multiple comorbidities due to the risk of intra-operative carcinoid crisis and high post-operative bleeding. In this comprehensive review, we will analyze the causes of carcinoid syndrome and how it can result in severe right heart failure. The role of different imaging modalities in detecting heart valve disease will be discussed together with the therapeutic options at our disposal, such as medical treatment, surgery, and the novel role of transcatheter intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd11110359","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,7]],"date-time":"2024-11-07T04:22:56Z","timestamp":1730953376000},"page":"359","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Cardiac Surgery and Transcatheter Intervention for Valvular Heart Disease in Carcinoid Syndrome: Risk Factors, Outcomes, and Evolving Therapeutic Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mariagrazia","family":"Piscione","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5374-8125","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valeria","family":"Cammalleri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Cardiovascular Science, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2022-8565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giorgio","family":"Antonelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valeria Maria","family":"De Luca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Myriam","family":"Carpenito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Cardiovascular Science, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dario","family":"Gaudio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nino","family":"Cocco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Cardiovascular Science, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4069-6781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Nenna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmelo","family":"Dominici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Bianchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine, Endocrinology and Diabetes Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Grigioni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Cardiovascular Science, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8849-3097","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gian Paolo","family":"Ussia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Cardiovascular Science, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2016.12.030","article-title":"Diagnosing and Managing Carcinoid Heart Disease in Patients with Neuroendocrine Tumors: An Expert Statement","volume":"69","author":"Davar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. 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