{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T02:18:27Z","timestamp":1791598707415,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745798400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2014NextGenerationEU","award":["B53C22004000006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B53C22004000006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCDD"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Non-traditional cardiovascular risk factors (RFs) are increasingly emerging as important modifiers of cardiovascular risk (CVR), offering insights beyond traditional metrics like hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. These include novel biomarkers, chronic conditions (e.g., chronic kidney disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), environmental exposures, chronic inflammation, infections, psychosocial factors, and sex-specific conditions, all of which influence the prediction, management, and outcomes of cardiovascular disease (CVD). These additional RFs may impact on CVD prediction and add valid information during tailored patient assessment and management. Therefore, a careful assessment of both traditional and non-traditional cardiovascular RFs, with a personalized treatment, could dramatically reduce the total CVD burden. Nevertheless, further research is needed to precisely estimate the magnitude of their impact as risk and prognosis modifiers in order to be included in future risk charts. This review provides a critical analysis of non-traditional RFs, their pathophysiological mechanisms, and their implications for personalized care. Integrating these factors into CVR assessment can reclassify patient risk categories, optimize therapeutic strategies, and improve prognosis. However, further research is needed to refine their inclusion in risk charts and evaluate their impact on public health outcomes. A tailored, multidisciplinary approach is essential to reduce the burden of CVD and associated mortality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd12050171","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T09:39:47Z","timestamp":1745833187000},"page":"171","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Non-Traditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors: Tailored Assessment and Clinical Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1418-7908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Perone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiac Rehabilitation Unit, Rehabilitation Clinic \u201cVilla delle Magnolie\u201d, 81020 Castel Morrone, Caserta, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Bernardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, 04100 Latina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6443-4121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Spadafora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, 04100 Latina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8458-3747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Betti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Cardiovascular Section, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7504-3775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Cacciatore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatrics, Orthopedics and Rheumatology, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario \u201cAgostino Gemelli\u201d IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9969-2649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Saia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interventional Cardiology, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Policlinico Sant\u2019Orsola, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7853-0042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Fogacci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hypertension and Cardiovascular Risk Research Center, Medical and Surgical Sciences Department, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2021-1660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vikash","family":"Jaiswal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Research, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, FL 33431, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3381-605X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elad","family":"Asher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jesselson Integrated Heart Center, Shaare Zedek Medical Center Jerusalem and Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9103102, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Paneni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Translational and Experimental Cardiology (CTEC), Deapartment of Cardiology, University Hospital Z\u00fcrich and University of Z\u00fcrich, Wagistrasse 12, Schlieren, 8952 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"University Heart Center, University Hospital Zurich, Ramistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5388-942X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"De Rosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6690-6874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Banach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ciccarone Center for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe St., Carnegie 591, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA"},{"name":"Department of Preventive Cardiology and Lipidology, Medical University of Lodz (MUL), Rzgowska 281\/289, 93-338 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6103-8510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Biondi Zoccai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, 04100 Latina, Italy"},{"name":"Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0243-3673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierre","family":"Sabouret","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Heart Institute and Action Group, Piti\u00e9-Salp\u00e9tri\u00e8re, Sorbonne University, 75013 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.9122","article-title":"Risk Assessment for Cardiovascular Disease With Nontraditional Risk Factors","volume":"320","author":"Jin","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.4242","article-title":"Nontraditional Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessment: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force","volume":"320","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tragomalou, A., Paltoglou, G., Manou, M., Kostopoulos, I.V., Loukopoulou, S., Binou, M., Tsitsilonis, O.E., Bacopoulou, F., Kassari, P., and Papadopoulou, M. 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